LIBRARY OF COi\GRESS, 

-g^. :sb vni 



♦united states of AMERICA,* 
Si'*'*'*-**.'**.'*-*'*'*.*-*-*-**.**.-*©: 




AMERICAN 

WHEAT CULTURIST. 



ON THE 

CULTURE OF WHEAT, 

EMBRACING A BRIEF HISTORY AND BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF WHEAT. 
WITH FULL PRACTICAL DETAILS FOR SELECTING SEED, PRO- 
DUCING NEW VARIETIES, AND CULTIVATING ON 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOIL. 



Illustrated with Numerous Engravings of a Practical Character. 



By ^: edwakds'todd, 

A.GEICULTTTRAL AND HOETICULTITEAL EDITOR OF THE NEW YORK TIMES, AND AUTHOR 
OF " THE YOUNG FARMER'S MANUAL," ETC., ETC. 



/ ^ NEW YORK : 
TAINTOR BEOTHERS 

229 BROADWAY. 

1868. 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 
TAINTOE BROTHERS & CO., 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
District of New York. 




The New York Printing Company, 
8i, 83, AND 85 Centre Street, 
New York. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Introduction to Wheat Culture — Botanical Description of 

"Wlieat — Description of Varieties, 9 

CHAPTER II. 

SoU for Wlieat, and Preparation — Culture and Fructification, . 120 



CHAPTER III. 

Saving Seed Grain — Procuring Early Varieties — When to Sow 
Wheat, 235 



CHAPTER lY. 

Wheat Harvest — General Management of Wheat — Machinery, . 325 

CHAPTER Y. 



MUdew — Diseases of Wheat — Insect Enemies of Wheat — Kerne - 

dies for Insect Ravages, 406 



PREFACE 



My apology for writing a book on wheat is simply my 
desire to aid farmers in their efforts to produce more bountiful 
crops of this kind of grain. For more than forty successive 
years, I have had more or less practical experience in the cul- 
ture of wheat. I have studied the habit of the wheat plant 
far more, perhaps, than the great mass of farmers have con- 
sidered the subject to be of any practical importance. I have 
investigated the failures of the wheat crop, and endeavored to 
discover efficient and practical remedies. 

I have excluded from the book every subject that might 
leave the ambitious young farmer in doubt; and have simply 
made a record of my own practical experience. There are 
scores of successful farmers who know most of what is con- 
tained in these pages. But the great mass of young farmers, 
who are just taking the places of their fathers, have yet to 
learn the important fundamental principles laid down in this 
work. Thousands upon thousands of active men, who know 
little about the practical part of raising wheat, will find in the 
following pages exactly the information they must have, before 
they can raise a bountiful crop of this kind of grain. 

Some of the articles were prepared originally by my pen, 
for the Independent, New York Observer, New York Times, and 
American Agriculturist. But after publication in those papers, 
they were rewritten and revised. I herewith desire to give 
honorable and honest credit for anything that has appeared in 
those periodicals and in this book also. 

With a few exceptions, the illustrations were originally pre- 
pared by myself for this book. The use of cuts on pages 11, 
25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 39, 99, 406, 407, 408, 415, has been kindly 



VIU 



PREFACE. 



afforded by Moore, Wilstack & Baldwin, Cinciimati, O., and 
62 Walker St., New York City, publishers of "Klippart's 
Wheat Plant." I have quoted a few pages from his work ; and 
I sincerely hope every reader will procure a copy, as it will 
be found an excellent introductory treatise to this book. 

I have aimed to bring out in these pages all the facts on 
wheat culture that young farmers will be ambitious to know. 
If they will peinise this book with care, they will find an answer 
to nearly every question that they may wish to have answered 
about wheat. Although my instructions are strictly elemen- 
tary, they are by no means superficial. Mere theories have 
been discarded. My aim has been to tell farmers how to raise 
good wheat, where their predecessors failed to get fair crops. 
If they follow my directions, success will crown their efforts. 

I have frequently referred to my first and second volumes 
of The Young Farmer's Manual. The first has met with an 
excellent reception. The second is just issued ; and is follow- 
ing the first. This Wheat Culturist may be called a third vol- 
ume, as they are intimately connected with each other. 

Illustrations of certain farm implements have been intro- 
duced for the express purpose of directing beginners where to 
procure reliable tools and machines that stand preeminently 
the highest in our country. 

Read the Index and Table of Contents. 

SERENO EDWARDS TODD, 

Office New York Times, New Yorh City. 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



CHAPTER I. 

Introduction to Wheat Culture. 

" The sire of gods and men -svith hard decrees, 
Forbids our plenty to be bought with ease ; 
And wills, that mortal men inured to toil, 
Should exercise A^ath pains, the grudging soil." 

Ukremitting diligence is the price of material luxuries. 
The beautiful compensation principle seems to pervade 
the entire domain of all animated existence. Well- 
directed skill and industry are always crowned with a 
satisfactory reward. To do something — to make some- 
thing — to give material substances a variety of forms — to 
produce something useful out of certain useless sub- 
stances, is a consideration worthy of our highest ambi- 
tion. There is an indescribable satisfaction in doing 
something. There is a charm in industry. The man 
who toils tln'ough a long summer's day to catch a single 
trout experiences an enjoyment when partaking of his 
frugal meal which he could never feel were the same 
fish taken by other hands. And the same is true of him 
who cultivates the soil to secm'e his daily bread. Were 



10 



THE WHEAT CULTTIRIST. 



a field of wheat to spring up spontaneously, and were we 
not required to break up the stubborn ground and culti- 
vate it, and put in the well-selected seed, existence would 
not bring half the pleasures which it now proffers so 
freely. The all- wise Creator foresaw that it would always 
be better for every man, woman, and child to have some- 
thing to do, than to spend their daj^s in idleness. For this 
reason, if we would have fine wheat for making excellent 
bread for ourselves and children, we must labor for it. 

It has been suggested by some writers that the difii- 
culties attending the production of delicious fruits, and 
fine grain, seem to increase with developments in arts and 
science. As our day is, so shall our knowledge be. Our 
ancestors cultivated wheat with but little difiiculty. As 
soon, therefore, as scientific men were competent to devise 
remedies for the insect and other enemies in checking 
the growth of the wheat crop, the foes appeared. Science 
has taught us that, if we would have ripe fruit, Ave must 
destroy the insects which will devour the young fruit or 
kill the tree. And science has taught us that, when we 
would grow wheat, as we are unable to exterminate the 
hordes of insects that would feed upon the crop, we must 
cultivate and enrich the soil so as to make the plants grow 
faster than the insects can eat. 



Chemical Structure of Wheat. 

In common parlance, when wheat is alluded to, the 
bran and the fiour only are spoken of The bran is the 
tough skin that envelops the part that makes the flour. 
Then, when we discourse farther of wheat, we say that 
the part that makes the flour is composed principally of 
starch and gluten. 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



11 



N"ow, if with a sharp knife we slice up a kernel of 
wheat into thin sections, and examine it with a glass of 
greatly magnifying power, the various parts will appear 
similar to the ac- 
companying ilhis- 
tration, which rep- 
resents a portion 
of a kernel of wheat 
higlily magnified. 
The part of the ker- 
nel represented by 
a a shows an ex-' 
ceedingly thin por- 
tion of the external 
part of the bran. 
The section repre- 
sented by 1) reveals 
a second layer filled 
with minute pores. 
At c is a third layer, 
much more delicate 
than either of the 
others, which is so 
exquisitely fine, that 
its presence can 
scarcely be detected, 
even by the aid of 
a good glass. The part of the illustration at cZ, repre- 
sents the portion of the kernel which is composed prin- 
cipally of gluten. " These four layers constitute the 
bran. The gluten in the cells, cZ, appears to be a faint 
yellowish substance, very small grained, and oily to the 
touch and smell. The cells in which the gluten is 




Fig. 1. — Section of a kernel of wheat highly mac 
nified. 



12 



THE WHEAT CTJLTIJEIST. 



formed are rather larger than any of the cells of the 
thi'ee layers just described, the walls of which are per- 
haps more delicate than any others in the entire kernel." 
Directly beneath the cells of glnten, lies the albumi- 
nous portion of the seed, which consists of hexagonal 
prismatic cells, which are filled with ovoid granules of 
starch, shown at e. These granules of starch, are 
enveloped in several layers of cellulose, or cell mem- 
brane, which, when heated to excess in water, burst 
and exude the starch contained in them. Gluten 
afibrds large quantities of nitrogenous matter. 

Iotltjence of Cldjate on Plants. 

A writer in the Portland Press " gives some facts to 
show that a northern climate, within certain limits, is 
better adapted to those plants which }neld food, than 
the warmer climate, where the same plant is indigenous. 
In order to succeed most satisfactorily, he thinks south- 
ern plants must be carried to a latitude north of the 
place where they grow. He writes : 

" That a northern climate is more conducive to 
health than a southern one, is generally admitted ; but 
that its influence upon the vegetable kingdom is more 
propitious to the perfect ability of plants necessary for 
the sustenance of man and of beast, is a proposition 
perhaps not so generally noticed and adopted as it 
should be. In these cold northern regions we some- 
times need to be apprised of facts which will rebuke 
the spirit of discontent, and make us more reconciled 
to the climate in which Providence has cast our lot. 

" The influence of climate upon plants is unquestion- 
able. Those carried from the ISTorth to the South gen- 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



13 



erallj deteriorate ; those brought from the South are 
generally improved by the transfer. In the process of 
vegetable acclimation, nature indicates that plants 
should emigrate toward the fields and gardens of 
northern cultivation, rather than that northern cultiva- 
tors should emigrate toward south-born plants. The 
process, indeed, is slow, but it is sure. Tropical plants, 
which once could hardly exist beyond a vertical sun, 
have, by acclimation, been transferred to temperate lati- 
tudes, and made to yield larger and better fruits than 
they ever were capable of yielding in their native 
soils. 

"In general it is true that all cidtiv ate d plants yield 
the greatest products^ and these of an hnjpTOved quality^ 
near the narthernnfiost limit in ivhich they vjill ripen. 
This is true of all the farinaceous plants, such as rice, 
maize, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and millet ; of all tuber- 
ous and bulbous roots, as potatoes, carrots, beets, turnips, 
parsnips, and radishes ; of all lint plants, as cotton, hemp, 
and flax ; of the salad family, as cabbage, lettuce, endive, 
and spinach ; of all the grasses, from timothy and red- 
top to lucern and the clovers, red and white ; of all the 
gourd family, from pumpkins and squashes to cucumbers, 
gherkins, and musk and water melons ; of all delicious 
and pulpy fruits — as apples, pears, peaches, nectarines, 
grapes, plums, cherries, currents, gooseberries, and straw- 
berries. It is also equally true of sugar cane, sorgo, and 
tobacco. Each and all of these most important products 
of the earth are improved by northern acclimation, and 
when brought as far into the high latitudes as they can 
be made to grow and mature, are found to produce in 
the greatest perfection and of a more excellent quality. 
TJio reason is this : the hot sun of a southern sky forces 



14 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



the plants into a rapid fructification before they have 
liad time to concoct their juices. The growth in stalk, 
vine, and foliage is too much for the composition ot 
fruit." 

It is stated by respectable authority, that wheat raised 
in Yirginia is better for making white bread than 
northern grain. The wheat grown in Missouri and in 
California yields a flour that commands a liigher price 
in market than the northern wheat. The flour of the 
California wheat is said to yield a larger percentage of 
gluten than wheat that was grown in latitudes north 
of the latitude of California. 

I pen these suggestions simply for the purpose of 
awakening in young farmers a spirit of investigation, 
with a view of encouraging them to take critical obser- 
vations on every subject connected with the cultivation 
of this valuable grain. 

Growing Wheat Then and 'Now. 

The question is asked with no little solicitude, why 
farmers cannot raise as good wheat at the present time 
as they did fifty years ago ? Then, a crop of wheat was 
as sure as a crop of Indian corn ; and, in numerous in- 
stances, three bountiful crops of wheat were taken from 
the same field, in three successive seasons. I well re- 
member, when a small lad, that my father raised three 
crops of wheat in one of his fields in three successive 
years ; and the third year, the growing grain seemed 
heavier than either of the preceding crops. Then, with 
miserable cidtivation, and only a small quantity of 
inferior barnyard manure, a farmer could count upon a 
heavy crop of first-rate wheat, with almost absol ute cer- 



THE WHEAT CULTTIEIST. 



15 



tainty. But now, many of our best farmers liave met 
with so many serious failures and disappointments in 
their wheat crops, that they are sometimes exceedmgly 
loath to try again. 

The true causes of failure haye not, as yet, been satis- 
factorily unrayelled. It is a remarkable fact, that the 
product of good wheat has not only diminished, but the 
quahty of the grain has greatly deteriorated. Then, 
it was a common occurrence to see an entire crop of 
wheat as fair and plump as the best qualities of seed 
grain at the present day. Scientific farmers and in- 
telligent laborers haye been anxiously inquiring after 
the cause: and one has assigned the rayages of the 
midge as the main cause, while others haye attributed 
the failure of crops to the increased seyerity of climatic in- 
fluences following the remoying of om- extensiye forests. 
Besides these causes, others haye assigned another, to 
them, plausible cause, which is the diminution of those 
elements of fertility in the soil which are essential to the 
formation of the grain. But all these reasons haye been 
satisfactorily refuted, in most instances, when taken 
alone. TTe must, therefore, attribute the failm'e — not 
to any single cause — but to a yariety of such causes as 
haye been mentioned, operating together to the great 
injury of the wheat crop. There is one obseryation in 
which I think eyery intelligent farmer will coincide with 
me, which is this-: If a piece of new land be sowed 
with choice seed wheat, and a dense forest protects the 
field during the winter, and if the midge do not injure 
the growing crop, the yield will be about as bountiful 
as crops were forty years ago. These hints suggest 
what is required in order to succeed in raising a bounti- 
ful crop of wheat. 



16 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



In the year 1861-62, I was ruralizing in Monroe Co., 
]Sr. Y., when I penned the following suggestion, touch- 
ing the culture of wheat in the wheat-producing part 
of the State : 

In the county of Monroe, thirty or more years ago, 
raising wheat was attended with remarkably good suc- 
cess. Indeed, wheat was the great staple with farmers 
for many successive years. Many old farmers with 
whom I conversed, pointed out to me whole farms, here 
and there, and many large fields, where the yield was 
seldom less than forty bushels of most beautiful wheat 
per acre; and, in many instances, the yield would be 
fifty bushels. But at the present time, on the same soil, 
the yield is expressed by any number from eight to 
thirty bushels per acre. 

We cannot raise wheat now, as we could once," was 
the oft-repeated expression among old farmers ; and the 
reason assigned, usually, was the " insects — ^the wheat 
midge makes such ravages in the crop." Thirty or forty 
years ago, they had all the advantages of a most excellent 
virgin soil, which was as well adapted to wheat as any 
other crop ; and had there been proper care exercised 
with reference to keeping the soil in a good state of fer- 
tility, by making and applying as much barnyard manure 
as was practicable, there never would have been such a 
decrease in the number of bushels per acre, as farmers 
now talk of. Old farmers have told that " here on these 
fields we once could raise three crops of wheat in succes- 
sion, and the third would be fully equal to the first." Of 
course, under such a system of farm management, the 
most productive soil that can be found in the country 
would fail to produce a remunerating crop, after so many 
years of hard cropping. I was assured that thirty years 



THE WHEAT CELTrEIST. 



17 



ago they were siire of a good crop of wheat, even when 
the soil was very poorlv cnltiTated. Bnt now wheat 
was the most "uncertain crop that they attempted to cnl- 
tivate. 

WixTEE TTheat — Triticiim Syhernum. 
Speen"g TTheat — Triticum (Estivum. 

" In the rich, soil, clean wheat we sow ; 
Out of the soil, fine wheat we grow ; 
In measureless store, we gamer the sheaves 
When the kernels are ripe, and dry the leaves ; 
Out of the sheaves, pure wheat we beat ; 
Out of the chaff, we winnow the wheat." 

Edwakds. 

Wheat is one of the most excellent of om' cereal 
grains. Botanically , wheat is one of the grasses. But, 
from time immemorial, the wheat plant has been cnl 
tivated for its excellent and hne grain. 

The origin of wheat is not positively known. Still, 
there is good reason for the belief, that, when " the 
Lord God made every plant of the field before it was 
in the earth" (Gen. ii. 5), wheat was one of the finest 
productions of His hands. And, there is no doubt, that 
this esculent grain constituted a good proportion of the 
best food of the antediluvians. 

The first allusion to wheat in sacred history is in 
Gen. XXX. li, during the patriarchal age, by which we 
may infer that wheat was raised by the servants of 
Jacob. And, when the Lord sent the destructive plague 
of hail on the land of the ancient Egyptians, Moses has 
told us, Ex. ix. 32, that " the wheat and the rye were 
not smitten.*' Li ]^umbers xviii. 12, wheat is alluded 
to among the offerings of the Israelites. In the days 
of the prophet Samuel, and during the reign of David 



18 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



and Solomon, this grain is alluded to in sncli a manner 
as to convey the idea that wheat was a kind of grain of 
great value and excellence. See Ps. cxlvii. 14, where 
" the finest of the wheat " is spoken of as one of the 
crowning blessings which the God of Israel lavished on 
his obedient people. And when Solomon dipped his 
graphic pen to portray the excellent graces of the 
Church, nothing would convey a more impressive and 
exalted idea of the beauty which he would describe than 
" a heap of wheat set about with lilies." (Cant. vii. 2.) 
Solomon sent wheat to Hiram, King of Tyre, when he 
was erecting the Temple. And in numerous other 
places in the Bible, from Genesis to Revelations, wheat 
is alluded to in a manner to convey the idea that it was 
the finest of the cereal grains, which rendered the most 
excellent food, not only for the poor, but for the rich 
and distinguished characters of the age. 

There is another idea concerning wheat worthy of 
especial notice, which is, that the wheat plant flourishes 
in proportion to the intelligence and condition of the 
agriculture of the people. This is especially true as to 
the condition of agriculture. If the agriculture of a 
nation is in a low state, but little or no good wheat will 
be found there. On the contrary, where the people are 
industrious, well civilized, and their agricultm*e is in a 
good condition, in most latitudes, good wheat — either 
winter or spring wheat — is, or may be, raised with 
profit, provided the climate is congenial to the produc- 
tion of this cereal. 



Wheat an Emblem of Civilization. 
After alluding to the wheat plant as an unequivo- 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



19 



cal emblem of civilization, enlightenment, and refine- 
ment, J. H. Klippart, in his " Wheat Plant," writes 
that: 

"As truly as did flocks of sheep in the primitive 
ages lead the shepherds to the threshold of that truly 
magnificent science. Astronomy, jnst so certainly did 
the wheat plant in yet earlier ages induce man to forget 
his savagism, abandon his nomadic life, to invent and 
cultivate peaceful arts, and lead a rm-al and peace- 
ful life. There is not on the vast expanse of the 
face of the globe a savage, barbarous, or semi-civilized 
nation that cultivates the wheat plant. In the settle- 
ment of I^ew England, the Indians called the plantain 
the ' Englishman's foot and in the infancy of society 
wheat may have been similarly regarded as springing 
from the footsteps of the Persians or Egyptians. 

" The ancients, who had burst the bonds of savag- 
ism, and scarcely more than escaped from the confines 
of barbarism, and through the magic infiuence of the 
fruit of the wheat stalk, barely reached the threshold of 
civilization, retained a grateful memory of the plant, 
which was the prime cause of their amelioration. They 
erected temples and instituted an appropriate rite for 
the worship of the goddess Ceres, who was by them 
regarded, not only as the patron goddess of the crops, 
but the propitiator of sound morals, and the promoter 
of peace and peaceful avocations. 

" In their traditions of the wars of the giants, the 
ancient Germans have a legend, the purport of which 
is, that Thor, the agriculturist, obtained possession of 
the soil from Winter, who had depressed, brutalized, 
scattered, and destroyed the inhabitants with his chill- 
ing blasts and storms of sleet and snow, and drenching 



20 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



showers of rain, -apon condition that he would intro- 
duce harmony, peace, and fellowship into social life by 
the culture of straw-producing plants. 

" The culture of the wheat-bearing plant compelled 
the cultivator to abandon the wild or nomadic life which 
it is not unreasonable to suppose he must have led ; and 
the time which otherwise would have been spent in 
roaming through the forests, was now spent in contriv- 
ing indispensable implements. First and prominent 
among these were the plough and harrow — rude beyond 
question in mechanical structure, and uncouth in ap- 
pearance, yet they were the first peaceful, and at the 
same time utilitarian products of civilization. 

" Thus has the culture of this straw-growing plant 
caused savages to abandon their barbarous customs — 
has fixed in friendly communion many nomadic and 
rival hordes — inaugurated the greatest era the world 
ever saw, the era from which the human race may date 
its incipient civilization — the era of labor. The continued 
culture and increase of this plant has from the very 
commencement called into action all the resources of 
civilized nations. After the invention of the plough and 
harrow, man's inventive genius was tasked to produce 
a reaping hook or sickle ; and successively during the 
many ages of the historic period has this plant called 
into existence the scythe, the grain cradle, winnowing 
machine, sowing machine, thrashing machine, and 
within our own day and generation, the reaping ma- 
chine. The prolificacy of this plant has brought into 
existence the cart and the wagon in the earlier ages of 
society, but in more recent ones it has demanded the 
construction of turnpikes and macadamized roads 
through the pathless wilderness ; that canals be dug to 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



21 



unite the waters which flow to the northward with those 
which flow to the eqnator ; that boats be constructed, 
and ships with wide-spreading canvas were found to be 
indispensable ; and lastly, the steamboat, steamship, 
railroad, and steam flouring-mill were as loudly and 
as earnestly demanded in our day as was the rude plough 
in the first days of civilization. 

" There is not in the entire catalogue of plants an- 
other one which has been as instrumental in the devel- 
opment of mechanical ingenuity, and the intellectual 
faculties, as has been, and is, the wheat plant. It is 
true that fibre-producing plants, and prominently among 
these flax and cotton, have exercised considerable influ- 
ence in the development of mechanical inventions ; but 
upon strict examination it will be found that very many 
of the principles of mechanical structures and combi- 
nations of powers had already been called into requisi- 
tion by the fibre produced by the sheep, and the thread 
produced by the silk- worm. 

" In countries where the agricultural art, or rather 
the culture of the wheat plant, has fallen into disuse, 
there has civilization also retrograded ; and were it 
not for commerce with enlightened and refined nations, 
several countries would speedily relapse into all the hor- 
rors of absolute barbarism. Were the wheat plant 
' blotted out of existence,' society would of necessity 
revert to its original state. In vain would the miner 
delve in the bowels of the earth to bring forth the dark 
and heavy ore to make iron. ISTo iron would be wrought 
because there would be no use for ploughs, and conse- 
quently, no use for the thousand mechanical contriv- 
ances for sowing, harvesting, thrashing, cleaning, trans- 
porting, and grinding wheat. Is it not astonishing to 



22 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUKIST. 



reflect on the number of persons engaged in the cultui'e 
of the plant, the number engaged in constructing and 
improving machinery to gather and prepare the seed, 
the number engaged in transporting the grain from 
place to place, as well as the number engaged in the 
manufacture of flour, and the preparation of bread. 
Truly is not the wheat the plant, the corner-stone of 
civilization, and would not the destruction of it over- 
whelm society with darkness blacker than the storm- 
cloud at midnight ! Does the extreme cold of winter 
destroy the germ of the stalk in the plant ? have the 
rains been too frequent and too abundant, or has a 
pitiless and heartless hail-storm levelled it to the earth ? 
Then how many are the thousands to whom is brought 
suflering and sorrow and hunger ! 

" While the hands of industry are busily employed in 
securing the product yielded by the wheat plant, every 
one is eagerly and earnestly shaping his demand for a 
j^ro rata of the results. This one has closeted himself, 
and bm-ied himself in the study of law; that one has 
seized the pencil or the chisel ; another has taken to the 
jack-plane ; a fourth has mounted the fearful locomo- 
tive ; a fifth has intrusted himself to the treacherous 
waves of the briny deep ; a sixth has picked up the 
sledge, whose uses were taught to mankind by Yulcan, 
and from sun to sun strikes the patient anvil ; all, all 
having a single and identical object in view, namely, 
that of exchanging the fruits of their labors for the 
fruits of the wheat plant. Thus is the action of society 
kept in a continual round of exchange, like a bark on a 
sluggish eddy, forever departing from the shore only to 
be forever arriving at it, and forever arriving only to be 
forever departing. The pearl-fisher dives fearlessly into 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



23 



the fathomless deeps of the ocean for the animal prod- 
uct found among the rocky polyp-trees ; the miner 
excayates the subterranean shaft for gold ; the artists 
produce articles of the most exquisite workmanship, 
and like a beast of burden, the porter tenders the seryices 
of his physical strength in order to obtain a proportion 
of the products of the wheat plant. All that we see or 
hear, all that is done, all that is spoken, written, or 
thought, is performed directly or indirectly on account 
of the fruit of that plant, which introduced, deyeloped, 
and to-day maintains ciyilization.'' 



Old CKEyECCEUK's Speech. 

"Wlien the aborigines of our country saw the refine- 
ment of character, the spirit of philanthropy, which 
possessed the hearts of their white neighbors, their ob- 
serying chieftain, Creyecceur, of the now extinct tribe 
of the Mississais, is said to haye addressed his people in 
the following pathetic remarks : 

" Do you not see the whites liying upon seeds, while 
we eat flesh? That flesh requires more than thirty 
moons to grow up, and is then often scarce. Each 
of the wonderful seeds they sow in the earth returns 
them an hundred fold. The flesh on which we subsist 
lias fom- legs to escape from us, while we haye but two 
to pm'sue and captm-e it. The grain remains where the 
white men sow it, and grows. With them winter is a 
period of rest ; while with us, it is the time of laborious 
hunting. For these reasons they haye so many chil- 
dren, and liye longer than we do. I say, therefore, unto 
eyery one that will hear me, that before the cedars of 
our yillage shall haye died down with age, and the 



24 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



maple trees of the valley shall have ceased to give us 
sugar, the race of the little corn (wheat) sowers will 
have exterminated the race of the flesh-eaters, provided 
their huntsmen do not resolve to become sowers." 

BoTANicAi. Description of Wheat. 

Although this portion of my treatise on wheat may be 
quite uninteresting to men who are solely practical, still 
I think every ambitious farmer will be interested in the 
botanical description of a plant so eminently valuable 
as wheat. Boys in particular, I think, will be ambitious 
to learn the names of the various parts of the growing 
plant. 

That part of the wheat plant which farmers colloqui- 
ally call the head or ear, is termed, botanically, a spike^ 
as 14, in the accompanying illustration. A subdivision 
of a spike, or ear, is called a sj)ilcelet. In some sections 
of the country, a spikelet is better understood if it is 
spoken of as a breast of wheat. At A, in the illustra- 
tion, a three flowered spikelet is represented. B B are 
the beards or awns. The ear 14 is called beardless, awn- 
less, or bald wheat. At the right hand, 1 represents the 
rachis^ or the centre of the ear, as it appears after the 
grain and chaff are removed, either by thrashing, 
or rubbing the ears in the hands. The spikelets are 
placed on alternate sides of the rachis, so that the edges 
of the florets, 5, 6, 10, in the spikelet. A, of the illus- 
tration, lie toward each other. At 4, the glumes are 
represented. At 13, a kernel of grain is shown. B, 2. 
represents a kernel of wheat enclosed in the chaff ; or 
such portions are spoken of as " ichite caps^ 

Certain kinds of wheat are remarkable for white caps, 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



25 



Previous to the invention of the thrashing-machines, 
when the wheat was thrashed Avith flails, or trod out 
with horses, white caps were a serious annoyance, when 




Fig. 2. — Different parts of a wheat head. 



grain was being prepai-ed for market. But thi-ashing- 
machines remove the inner chaff, or the white caps. At 

2 . 



26 



THE ^'HEAT CULTUEIST. 



4, 5, 6, 1 an awned glume and kernel is represented, 
with the grain laid bare. Before thi'ashing-machines 
were invented, farmers considered it an important chai*- 
acteristic of wheat to thrash easily, and be free from 
white caps. The old bald wheat, and the Hntchinson 
wheat always thrashed easily. But the TThiteflint 
variety furnished white caps in nntold numbers. But 
now some wlieat-growers consider the Whit eflint variety 
the most desfrable, as the kernels are enveloped closely 
in the inner chaff ; consequently, the wheat midge is not 
so apt to injure the grain as if the chaft" were more 
open. 

How Kerxels of "Wheat Geemen'ate. 

"Lo I on each seed, within its slender rind, 
Life's golden threads in endless circles \^-ind ; 
Maze Tvithin maze the lucid webs are rolled. 
And as they hurst, the living flames unfold : 
Grain within gn-ain. snccessire harvests dweU, 
And boundless forests slumber in a shell." 

The germination of a kernel of gi*ain, the manner of 
the growth of the roots of the young plant and their 
ramifications through the soil, the unfolding of plumule, 
or stem, and the full and perfect development of the 
ear and the full qoyw in the ear. all considered collec- 
tively, constitute a wondei-ful mystery ! When we con- 
sider what a very minnte and tender thing the genn of 
a kernel of wheat is ; how easily a score of enemies may 
destroy it, or how quickly some adverse infiuence of 
cold or heat, or of both operating alternately, may de- 
stroy the natality of the germ, it is really a wonder 
that farmers are ever able to produce a single bushel of 
wheat. 

The accompanying illustration represents a kernel of 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



27 



wheat with the groove downward. The part marked 
a represents the mam part of the kernel which supphes 
nourishment to the growing plant. 
By cutting a kernel of grain into thin 
slices with a sharp knife, the germ or 
embryo may be seen at e. At h the 
plumule, or stem, appears ; and c rep- 
resents the radicle, while h and d 
show the first and second skin of the 
kernel. The true roots issue at the 
points of the kernel represented at 
f and g. J. H. KKppart states in his 
" Wheat Plant," that as soon as moist- 
ure has found its way through the 
canals in the husks or skins, 5, Fig. 3.— a kernel of 
and d, so as to be in contact with the ^^eat magnified, 
starch cells, ^, the moisture penetrates the cell-walls 
of the seed and its embryo, and there forms a strong 
solution. The seed has now the power of decompos- 
ing water. The oxygen in the water combines with 
some of the carbon of the seed, when the product is ex- 
pelled as carbonic acid. The presence of moisture and 
oxygen induces putrefaction of a portion of the albu- 
minous matter in the cells, which becomes an actual fer- 
ment, exhaling carbonic acid gas, generating heat, and 
converting the insoluble starch which is stored up in the 
kernel into soluble sugar. 

The starchy substances deposited within the seed were 
undoubtedly designed to furnish food to the young plant 
until the roots and leaves have attained sufficient size to 
derive nourishment from the soil and the atmosphere. 
In wheat, starch is the most important ingredient of 
plant food. 




28 



THE WHEAT CULTIJRIST. 



The germination of a kernel of wheat is further illus- 
trated by the figure herewith given, which represents 
a grain of wheat highly magnified. B represents the 
body of the kernel, composed of starch and glnten. A 
is the cellular tissue, the original covering of the embryo 
blade. C is the main root ; and D shows the hard cellular 
matter which constitutes the base of growth of the root 
and stem. E, E, E are free cones of cells at the 
points of roots. F, F are lateral roots, a is the future 
stalk or plumule, d is the course of bundle of dotted 
fibre. 6, 6, e are suckers ; and i represent the course 
of spiral fibre. A, A, A show the cellular tissue, or 
covering of the blade. 




Fig. 4. 

Spongioles. 

I have met with certain botanists who sneer at the 
idea of there being spongioles at the ends of the roots 
of wheat. Yet, all the most reliable authors of trea- 
tises on botanical subjects speak of spongioles. And if 



THE WHEAT CTJLTURIST. 



29 



a person will examine the ends o'f roots of the wheat 
plant, with a microscope, he will find a free cone, or 
epongiole, at the ends of the roots E, E, Fig. 4 ; and 
the same thing, highly magnified, is represented at 
Fig. 5. The part represented by the letter d is the 
root; and c, h is the lozenge-shaped cone. This free 
capsnle envelops the inner apex of the growing root ; 
bnt there is a space free from cells between the base of 
the cone and the apex of the root which the cone covers. 
Beneath this cellulated cone, or capsule, the growth of 
the roots takes place, by the development of cells at the 




Fig. 5.— Spongiole highly magnified. 



extremity of the inner apex of the roots. Soon after 
the main roots are formed, suckers, or rootlets, ^, ^, ^, 
Fig. 4, are pnt forth, on the ends of which are minute 



30 



THE WHEAT CULTUIRIST. 



capsules, similai' to tlie magnilied spongiole represented 
hj Fig. 5. 

The grand practical point for farmers to consider is 
this: the capsules at the ends of the roots are thrust 
through the soil like the point of a plough ; and the roots 
are formed behind them. This teaches us the eminent 
importance of assisting nature, by preparing a mellow 
seed-bed, through which the roots may spread with little 
difficulty. 

The Stem, oe PLr]yTXE. 

The illustration herewith given represents the ex- 
tremity of the stem of wheat, highly magnified, as the 
end appears when the wheat is coming up. Although 
this illustration I'esembles a stack of hay or straw, it 
exhibits the free capsule of cells and epidennic plasm^ 
which are so nearly identical with those of the roots of 
the same growing wheat plant. 

As soon as the plumule 
cc has forced its way through 
the soil, and appeared 
; above the surface of the 
ground an inch or more 
— J. H. Klippai't in his 
5 VTheat Plant states — that 
the stem gives bu'th to the 
lii'st tme leaves, as seen 
in Fig. 8 on a succeeding 
page, while the central bud 
is destined to become the 
future stalk. There can be 
no reasonable doubt that 
the cellular envelop, A, B, performs a similar function 




THE WHEAT CrXTURIST. 



31 



to tlie capsules of tlie roots, Fig. 4. In other words, 
the material in the envelop exerts a chemical influence 
on the soil which lies immediately above it, rendering 
the earth more yielding and pliable, so much so that 
the tender plumnle can come up into the sunlight and 
air with little difiicnlty. 

The plumnle is of great importance to the existence 
of the wheat plant. Bj its existence we may readily 
demonstrate how dependent each organ of a plant is on 
the other, and how harmoniously every part performs 
its destined function in sublime silence. If the heart, 
or plumule, of tlie voung wheat plant be pulled out 
from between the leaves, it will not be replaced by a 
new one. Yet, if the kernel or plant be not too much 
exhausted by a luxui'iant growth, a new plumule will 
appear from the grain, or main root, directly below the 
surface of the soil. 

The first effort of the growing plant toward more 
perfect development is to form a joint, or knot, im- 
mediately beneath the surface of the soil, and another 
a little above the surface. The upper one of these 
joints is the true commencement of the stalk. The 
joint beneath the surface marks the place from whence 
the coronal roots emanate, as has been already stated on 
a preceding page. These coronal roots are the chief 
laboratory for the preparation and distribution of the 
future nourishment of the growing plants. 

The Actiox of Eoots axd Spoxgioles. 

" There is no subject connected with A'egetable physi- 
ology which more nearly concerns the practical cultivator, 
as well as the man of science, than the precise nature 



32 



THE WHEAT CrLTlTEIST. 



of the action of roofs ^ for on them, more tlian on any 
other organ of a plant, depends the health of crops of 
every kind. Avithont one smgle exception. That the 
snbject has not received more attention is one of the 
cnriosities of science. It is true there are many state- 
ments of variable character and valne ; yet even more 
specnlations respectiug the manner in which roots be- 
have — theories of excretion — assertions regarding the 
chemical action roots are said to exercise on dead mat- 
ter ; but the qniet practical man who reads these be- 
yond the atmosphere of science, is far from being 
satisfied with what he finds in books. 

*' The qnestion as to whether the roots of plants are 
or not endowed with any special excretory functions is 
one which has occupied the attention of many natm*al- 
ists, as l)eiDg one of considerable importance, as well to 
the vegetable physiologist as to the agriculturist, in its 
application to the principles of alternation of crops. 
Xo absolute conclusion has as yet been come to, the 
aflirmative as well as the negative having been respec- 
tively maintained, either from general induction, or more 
rarely from direct observation and experiment. The 
opinion, however, that no such excretions take place, has 
been the most generally adopted. 

The impossibility of closely following under the 
microscope, in their natural circinnstances, vegetable 
phenomena which take place under groimd, and conse- 
quently in the dark, and in an opaque medium, is ob- 
vious. As a nearest approach to it. Gasparrini has 
caused the seeds of various plants to germinate under 
glass, in water, or in well- washed sand, in the dark or 
under difiused light, and thus examined their roots with- 
out disturl)ance in variotts stao-es and at various seasons. 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



33 



He also raised plants for the purpose in vases of sand 
well pulverized and washed, so as to be able to free the 
roots for examination, at a more advanced period with 
the least possible injury. His numerous experiments 
appear to have been conducted with the most scrupu- 
lous care, for which, moreover, his well-known success 
in analogous researches offers a sufficient guarantee. 

" It has long been known that roots absorb the nutri- 
ment necessary for the plant, by means of the young 
fibres which form the ultimate ramifications of the roots ; 
that these fibres are terminated by a short portion of a 
loose and soft textm-e called by botanists the spongiole. 
Fig. 5 ; that this spongiole is the point of growth of the 
fibre, usually bearing at its extremity a kind of cap of 
a harder and drier texture, called the pileorhiza, «, Fig. 
5, which is pushed forward by the fibre as it grows ; 
and that, immediately below the spongiole, the fibre is 
usually more or less invested with a short down consist- 
ing of small spreading hairs. Gasparrini shows that 
the spongiole itself seldom takes any part in the absorp- 
tion of the nutriment for the plant, but is nothing more 
than the young as yet imperfect part of the fibre, con- 
sisting of cellular tissue in the course of formation ; that 
the pileorhiza is a portion of the epidermis or covering 
of the fibre, which, after a period of comparative rest, 
is torn from the remainder of the epidermis and pushed 
forward by the growth of the spongiole under it, and is 
ultimately cast off, to be reproduced by similar causes 
the following season ; and that in the great majority of 
vascular plants the nutriment is either entirely or chiefly 
absorbed by the root liairs formed on the young fibres 
at tlie base of the spongiole, and which he on that ac- 
count denominates suckers. 

2* 



34 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



" Each of these root hairs or suckers consists of a sub- 
cuticular cellule of the epidermis, more or less length- 
ened out into a cylindrical hair-like form. It is at first 
uniformly smooth and straight, but at a later period 
either the extremity or the upper portion or sometimes 
nearly the whole length becomes variously deformed by 
club-shaped dilations, or irregular ramifications. The 
length of the suckers, and the shapes of these irregu- 
larities, are often more or less affected by the obstacles 
they meet witli in the earth, but not entirely so ; for 
when grown in water perfectly free from an impediment 
there is very great irregularity in both respects. In- 
ternall}^, however much ramified, the cell remains entire 
with one continuous cavity from the base to the extrem- 
ity of all its branches. Its walls also consist of a single 
membrane, no chemical reagent having disclosed any 
distinction between the walls of the cell and an external 
cuticle. 

" These suckers appear to absorb the alimentary juices 
by endosmose over their whole surface. Like leaves ou 
the young aerial shoots, they are formed on the young 
shoots of the roots ; like leaves also they die and disap- 
pear after a longer or shorter season, leaving the old 
roots entirely without them. 

" When fully formed, and before they decay, these 
suckers become more or less covered in their irregular 
branching portion (rarely in their basal cylindrical part), 
with viscous papillae or adhesive globules, forming gran- 
ular masses, to whicli the surrounding earthy particles 
strongly adhere. Are these viscous masses excretions 
from the roots, or are they the residue of substances 
contained in the earth and chemically decomposed by 
the roots in the absorption of such elements only as 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



35 



might be suited for the nutriment of the plant ? It is 
to the solution of this question that Gasparrini's experi 
ments are chiefly directed, and he concludes that they 
are entirely exuded from the suckers. 

" In the first place he adduces several experiments in 
refutation of those who believe that the tender fibres of 
roots possess some chemically dissolvent properties, and 
that it is by such means that they are enabled to pene- 
trate into masses of hard substances, whether inorganic 
or organic, such as the woody tissue of living plants. 
In the case of the common mistletoe growing on a pear 
tree, he followed the radical fibres of the parasite from 
the woody tissue through the alburnum and the par- 
enchyma of the bark sometimes to the length of half 
an inch. They could be clearly traced their whole 
length, although forming an intimate cohesion with the 
tissue of the matrix, except the spongiole at the extrem- 
ity, which was always free ; but he never saw the slight- 
est indication of any morbid alteration in the tissue 
thus penetrated. 

"In the case of the young plants of wheat, rye, bar- 
ley, rape-seed, and others which had been caused to 
germinate under glass, the process of excretion was 
readily observed. Previous to the formation of the ad- 
hesive globules on the surface, the suckers were full of 
a fluid in which floated a granular substance showing 
clearly a circulation in two currents, the one ascending, 
the other descending ; after a time the suckers opened 
at the extremity and discharged the greater part of the 
granular substance they contained, the discharge being 
preceded by a peculiar motion analogous to that of 
pollen grains before they burst. The contact of a drop 
of warm water accelerated the discharge ; and if the 



36 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



fibre was cut tlirougli at its base, the motion of the 
sncker was sudden and convulsive, and the contents dis- 
cliarged with considerable elasticity. 

" In the roots grown naturally within the earth, the 
circulation of the fluid contents of the suckers, when 
observed, was slow and feeble. Those which yet re- 
tained the granular substance within side, were as yet 
free from the external papillse, while those covered with 
the viscous masses outside, were nearly empty internally. 
But in these cases the excretion appeared but rarely to 
have been affected by the bursting of the extremity, but 
usually by exudation, through the membrane forming 
the walls of the cavity, and tliat in a manner which 
could scarcely be explained by endosmose alone, but by 
some other force unknown to us, and which must be 
included in the mysteries of vital action. 

" With regard to the effects produced by these exuda- 
tions on the capabilities of the soil for the nutriment of 
other plants at the same time, or in succession, there is 
nothing to show that they possess any acid, caustic, or 
saline properties likely to act prejudicially on other 
roots. Whether the matter be compared to the fecal 
excretions or to the residue left by insensible perspira- 
tion on the skin of animals, it can well be imagined 
that it cannot serve for nutriment if reabsorbed by the 
same plants, noi* probably if absorbed by others until 
decomposed ; but owing to its extreme tenuity the decom- 
position takes place very readily ; and as recent detritus 
of vegetable m^atter, its quantity is very small in com- 
parison to that of the decayed sucker and pileorhizas, 
and of the numerous fibres which perish from natural 
or accidental causes. If in the relative effect of differ- 
ent plants on the impoverishment of the soil, the radical 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



37 



excretions have any effect, it can only be caused by the 
difference in the qnahty left in the soil by different spe- 
cies. Some of the plants known to exhanst the soil in 
the highest degree, sncli as flax and box, have few or' 
no suckers to their roots and leave scarce any exuda- 
tions. Eye and many other grasses deposit very little 
in comparison with crucifers and cichoracese. Hemp, 
on the other hand, which is a great exhauster, exudes 
a great deal by the roots ; so do wlieat and barley, but 
the exhausting effects of these plants may be traced to 
other causes. Thus, then, although from these experi- 
ments the fact of absorption and excretion from the 
surface of organs of temporary duration on the young 
shoots of roots is clearly demonstrated, we do not pos- 
sess any data sufficient to affirm that the matter ex- 
creted produces any effect whatever on the capability 
of the soil to supply nutriment to other plants grown 
in it. 

" One of the experiments made by Gasparrini is very 
instructive as to the noxious effects of vegetable manures 
in those first stages of decomposition which are so fa- 
vorable to the development of moulds. In the month of 
January he sowed seeds of Tritictim spelta^ or as it is 
more commionly called Spelts, in a number of small 
garden-pots filled with well-washed Yesuvian sand. In 
one pot he placed a piece of young dead wood of Ailan- 
thus glandulosus, in another a piece of bread, in another 
a portion of a green potato, in a fourth a portion of a 
radish root, in a fifth some parings of kid's hoofs and 
bits of nutshells, in the sixth nothing, for the sake of 
comparison. The pots were all watered with common 
drinking-water, exposed by day to diffused light, and in 
clear days for a few hours to the direct light of the sun. 



38 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



and placed under cover bj night. At the end of a 
month each pot contained three plants, all, even those 
in the pot without any organic substance, equally 
healthy and luxuriant, about a span high, and with two 
leaves each. 

" In the pot in which was the piece of bread, the 
roots of the spelt were much branched, the fibres almost 
all turned toward the sides of the pot ; the numerous 
suckers were as yet scarcely modified, or had only slight 
gibbosities toward the extremity ; no circulation was 
perceptible ; the granular mucous substance inside was 
more or less abundant, and many were sprinkled ex- 
ternally toward the extremity with similar mucous 
granular masses. A few fibres approached within a 
certain distance of the bread, but none had penetrated 
within it. The bread had become a soft, putrid, spongy . 
mass, covered externally with white branching filaments 
spreading from it into the sand in every direction, and 
already in many places having nearly reached the sides 
of the pot ; and here and there a commencement of fruc- 
tification seemed to show that these filaments belonged 
to a species of Botrytis. The spongy mass of the bread 
was also almost entirely occupied by a violet-colored 
mycelium which appeared to be that of a Penicillium y 
the filaments of this mycelium had also spread from 
the bread in various directions. Some had descended 
to the bottom of the pot, where they had attacked and 
produced a morbid alteration on one side of a bit of the 
rhizome of Smilax asjpera^ which had been placed over 
the hole of the pot. In another direction the mycelium 
of this Penicillium^ together with a few filaments from 
tlie Botrytis^ had reached a fibre of the Triticum^ and had 
encircled it for the length of half an inch. The portion 



THE WHEAT CULTrRIST. 



39 



of fibre so attacked was soft, livid, and dead ; and the 
extremity toward the spongiole was shrivelled and also 
dead. In the livid portion, the suckers were but little 
developed and mixed with the Botrytis filaments ; but it 
was evident that the chief injury to the roots was pro- 
duced by the PeniGillium, whose filaments adhered 
firmly to their epidermis. In none of the other pots 
had the roots of the spelt come into contact with the 
organic substances deposited in the soil." 



Blossoming of "Wheat. 



In order to enable the beginner to understand more 
perfectly the character of the wheat plant, I shall en- 
deavor to explain by the accom- 
panying illustration. Fig. 7, the 
blossom of the growing wheat. 
This figure represents a glnme 
of wheat in bloom, magnified 
twelve times, a represents a rup- 
tured anther, which is that part of 
the wheat blossom that contains the 
pollen grains in which is found the 
male fecundating fiuid, principle, 
or property of the blossom, by 
which two different kinds of grain 
growing in close proximity hyb- 
ridize, or mix. That part marked 
h is termed the filament, or thread, 
from its thread-like form; and it 
connects the anther to the ovule 
or glume, as the case may be. The 




Fig. T. 



entn^e organ. 



a, 5, is called a stamen. 



(?, c rep re- 



THE WHEAT CTXTIJEIST. 



sent tlie male portion of the wheat blossom; and e 
show the appearance of the female part of the flower. 
d represents the ovule, or unimpregnated seed, or part of 
the growing plant which is destined to become a seed, 
or the new grain. The pistils are always in the centre 
of the flower, and are attached to, or surmounted on 
the ovule, or ovary, to which they serve as ducts for the 
pollen grain, when brought in contact with each other. 

It may be perceived by the illustration, that the 
anthers, have their exit at the upper portion of the 
glumes, so that the pollen may readily descend, by its 
o^vn gravity, directly upon the pistils. The pistils and 
the pollen grain are covered with an exceedingly thin 
coat of mucilaginous matter, which causes them to ad- 
here, when they are brought in contact. 

Tlie grand practical consideration which I have had 
in ^dew by recording these suggestions and facts, relative 
to the stamens, pistils, and pollen of the wheat blossoms, 
is to give practical farmers a fair idea of the process 
of impregnation and hybridization. Very few farmers 
think of this fact. Thousands of practical men of fair 
intelligence know nothing about the means by which 
wheat mixes, and how varieties, when planted in a close 
proximity, mix and soon run out. 

IlYBErDIZLN^G- WhEAT. 

I pen elaborate suggestions under this head for the 
purpose of impressing upon the mind of every farmer 
the eminent importance of striving to keep his varieties 
of wheat from growing in close proximity, and conse- 
qnently from hybridizing ; and I could think of no more 
efl'ectual way to accomplish the desired end, than by 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



41 



introducing to my readers the operation of liybridiza- 
tion. 

D. J. Brown, in one of the Patent Office Reports, 
when alluding to the hybridizing of wheat, states that : 

" The terms 'mule,' 'hybrid,' ' half-breed,' and ' cross- 
breed' are vaguely and indiscriminately used by many 
writers ; but it is essential to accuracy, that more precise 
distinctions should be observed. The offspring of two 
animals of different species is a mule^ and is seldom en- 
dowed with the procreative power, and still more rarely 
with a long-continued succession. The product of two 
plants of different species is a hybrid ; and although it is 
in general more prosperous than the mule of animals, it 
is still destined to yield at length to the beneficent law 
of I^ature, which ordains that neither among animals 
nor vegetables shall the distinctions of species be oblit- 
erated. The permanent divisions among plants of the 
same species, often called ' varieties,' are properly^7"C)Z6<§, 
or races. The product of two individuals of the same 
species, but of ditterent races, is a variety^ as is every 
modification of this, effected by cross-fecundation with 
any other variety, or with any of the races of its species. 

" Great advantages have been found to proceed from 
the practice of cross-fecundation, in the extraordinary 
improvement effected in the flowers, esculent vegetables, 
and fruits of almost every country. That the Cereals 
have only to a limited extent shared these advantages is 
a subject of just surprise to the curious inquirer ; but, 
until very recently, it was doubted that much, if any- 
thing, could be accomplished in regard to them. Pro- 
fessor Gsertner, of Stuttgart, who has been said to have 
almost exhausted the subject in certain points of view, 
has declared the Cereals to be ' among the plants 



42 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



least favorable to cross-fecundation." In 1851, however, 
prize medals were awarded at the Industrial Exhibition, 
in London, to Mr. B. Maund, and to Mr. H. Raynbird, 
of the United Kingdom, for their resj)ective collections 
of " hybrid Cereali." In their award, the jurors speak 
of the process, not as impracticable, but merely as being 
difficult, in consequence of the care requisite in remov- 
ing the unexpanded anthers from one plant, and apply- 
ing the pollen of another, and subsequently guarding 
them from the attacks of birds, insects, and other dis- 
turbing influences. 

" Mr. Maund experimented with ' Cone ' wheat, which 
contains much gluten, in the hope that by crossing it 
with a race containing more starch, he might obtain a 
whiter quality of equal value ; but it is not stated that 
he was wholly successful. Mr. Raynbird commenced 
his experiments in 1846, with the ' Hopetoun,' a white 
wheat, of long ear and straw, and fine grain, and 
'Piper's Thickset,' a coarse red wheat, with thick, 
clustered ears, a stiff straw, and very prolific, but liable 
to mildew. Mr. Maund enumerates eight instances in 
which successful cross-fecundation had taken place, as 
follows : 

'' Mr. Maund- found, as a general rule, in the cross- 
fecundation of wheat, that a strong male and a weak 
female produced a better result than a weak male and a 
strong female. This principle holds equally good in 
the animal kingdom as well as in the vegetable. 

" The entire feasibleness of the production of new va- 
rieties of wheat by cross-fecundation, and its great de- 
sirableness, being thus established, it is not doubted that 
many intelligent agriculturists of the United States will 
be wilhng to institute further experiments for the pur- 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



43 



pose of developing improved varieties, or such as shall 
be found peculiarly adapted to the soil, climate, or de- 
mands of particular sections of the country ; and, for 
their guidance, a few practical suggestions will here be 
given. 

" ISTew varieties thus produced resemble both parents, 
but seldom in an equal degree. In successful experi- 
ments, they are usually of earlier development than 
either parent, more prolific, and better adapted to with- 
stand cold and drought. A late plant of an early, and 
an early plant of a late race, may be made to produce 
early, late, and intermediate varieties. Sometimes, 
when the first cross is not good, a mixture between it 
and one of the parent races, or even a second or third 
cross of this nature, may result in the desired quality. 
Two races, which do not cross freely, may also find a 
medium of union in a third. Again, a race that will 
not readily receive, will often freely impart impregna- 
tion. 

" In every perfect head of wheat, there are, during the 
blooming season, both male and female organs of repro- 
duction, three stamens and one pistil. The stamens, or 
male organs, shoot out beyond the chafi", or calyx, each 
having an anther suspended by a fine thread. 

" The three males are designed to impregnate the 
stigma of the one female, or pistil, which is situated in 
the centre of the anthers. From these anthers, a pow- 
der, or pollen, is emitted, which adheres to, or is ab- 
sorbed by, the stigma, and is conveyed by it down to 
the berry, or seed, at its base, and thus effects the work 
of fecundation. So decided is the preference of the 
pistil for the pollen of its own stamens, that it is often 
impossible to impregnate it with that of any other head, 



44 



THE WHEAT CTTLTTJEIST. 



while a particle of this is near. Impregnation takes 
place best when the weather is dry and warm, as a pecu- 
liar warmth, and a certain electric state of the atmos- 
phere, prepare the parts for this process, which always 
occm's on a dry day. The opinion, indeed, has been ex- 
pressed, that the pollen of the male conveys hydrogen 
to the ovnles of the female ; that oxygen is received from 
the atmosphere, and carbon, in the form of carbonic 
acid gas, from the roots ; and that, when the pollen is 
destroyed by the rain, or from any other canse, the 
carbon alone is fonnd in the ear ; and this is the well- 
known ' smut ' in wheat. That pollen of the stamen is 
essential to impregnation is at least certain ; and it is al- 
most as certain, from what has been stated, that the total 
destruction of the reproductiye power of a particular 
race of wheat must be effected, before the inffuence of 
another can be felt. Two races being placed together, 
therefore, a cross can only be certainly effected by clipping 
the anthers from all the stamens of one variety, and leav- 
ing the work of impregnation to be effected by those of 
tlie other exclusively. This may be done by any person 
capable of distinguishing between the two races ; but, 
perhaps, the safer guide to this distinction consists in 
sowing the two in separate drills, very near each other, 
say nine or ten inches apart ; and to render the work 
still more sm^e, there should be no other growing wheat 
within at least a quarter of a mile of that experimented 
upon, the affinity between the pollen and the ovnles 
being of almost incredible force. 

" As soon as the anthers show their ffrst rndiments, 
in a race npon which the cross is to be made, they 
should be carefully removed, or clipped with a pair of 
sharp scissors, leaving the female organs undisturbed. 



THE WHEAT CELTTEIST. 



45 



Thus the races would be impregnated with the pollen 
of one. TThen matui'ed, the utmost care should be 
taken to gather the seeds of the crossed race by 
itself. 

''Hybridization is an operation requiring dexterity, 
a light and steady hand ; and it has been frequently re- 
marked that the operation is more uniformly successful 
when performed by a female. Many singular facts with 
regard to the structure of flowers have been discovered 
through attempts to hybridize. In the common nettle, 
the stamens have elastic filaments which are at fii'st bent 
down so as to be obscured by the calyx : but when the 
pollen is ripe, the filaments jerk out, and thus scatter 
the powder on the pistils which occupy separate fiowers. 
In the common barberry the lower part of the filament 
is very irritable ; and whenever it is touched the stamen 
moves forward to the pistil. In the stylewort the sta- 
mens and pistils are united in a common column, which 
projects from the fiower. This column is very irritable 
at the angle where it leaves the flower, and when 
touched it passes with a sudden jerk from one side to the 
other, and thus scatters the pollen."' 

KxIPPAEt's SrOGESTIOXS. 

" When it is desired to obtain a hybrid from her- 
maphrodite flowers, the first thing to be done is to re- 
move the anthers ; this is best performed early in the 
morning, because the dew has swollen the anthers, and 
prevents the opening of the little sac, which contains 
the pollen. The simplest method of removing the 
anthers is to use a pair of very small scissors or forceps. 
Then at, or toward noon, carefully remove the anthers 



46 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



ii^om the flower with, whose pollen we wish to imjDreg- 
nate, and shake them gently so that the pollen dust may 
fall upon and adhere to the stigma of the flower from 
which the anthers had been removed in the morning. 
The heat of the day produces a dilatation of the pollen, 
and thus facilitates its dispersion. 

" In order, then, to hybridize, it is necessary to take 
the heads of wheat which are intended to be the parents, 
both male and female, when thej have arrived at that 
state of maturity indicated by Fig. T, or hefore any of 
the anthers have escaped from the glume. Suppose a 
cross is intended to be consummated between the Gen- 
esee Flint, as male, and White Blue Stem, as female. 
Then, on a dry and warm day — this state of weather 
seems to be necessary, as at such times impregnation not 
only more readily takes place, but appears to be more 
successful — between 10 and 12 o'clock, hold the head of 
the Blue Stem downward, and carefully open the glume ; 
then with a very sharp-pointed scissors, cut ofi" the 
anthers (a, c?, Fig. 7), and let them fall to the ground. 
Great care must be taken that no anther is permitted to 
toucli the pistil of the same head, either before or after 
separation of the filaments (J, J, Fig. 7). This is perhaps 
the most delicate part of the operation. After the 
anthers have been remov^ed, pollen grains from the 
anthers of the Genesee Flint must be immediately ap- 
plied to the pistil of the glumes from which the anthers 
have been removed. 

" In order to preserve the heads thus impregnated 
Irom injury by insects or birds, they may be enveloped 
in a hood of gauze, or Swiss muslin ; but no caution 
whatever is necessary to guard against accidental intro- 
duction of pollen grains." 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



47 



Chaeacteeistics of a Peefect Yaeiety of Wheat. 

As the growing wheat plants and ripening grain have 
so many enemies to encounter, and as variable climates 
and changing seasons greatly affect the quality of the 
grain and the yield per acre, it is eminently desirable 
that a variety should be selected for seed which will 
escape if possible, all the injuries incident to the wheat 
ci'op. I will mention the most desirable characteristics 
of a superior variety of winter wheat. 

1. Early maturity. This characteristic must not be 
overlooked, as a period of only a few days in the matu- 
rity of the crop, will often decide whether the farmer is 
rewarded for his labors, or whether the wheat midge 
destroys most of the crop. 

2. Prolificacy. By this I mean, that the variety shall 
be pure, having been cultivated with unusual care on 
a fertile soil, until the yield will be as large as it is 
possible for the soil to produce of any other variety of 
wheat. 

3. Midge-proof. The glumes, or chaff, of certain vari- 
eties of wheat grow with an open chaff, which enables 
the wheat midge to commit its ravages with very little 
hindrance ; while the chaff of other varieties grows close 
to the kernels, thus offering a very effectual preventive 
to the entrance of these pests of the wheat field. A 
variety that grows with a loose and open chaff should 
be rejected, and a kind of seed chosen that grows with 
the chaff' close to the kernels. 

4. A thin skin^ or hran. Some varieties of wheat 
will yield several pounds more of flour than another 
variety. For this reason, that wheat which will yield 
the largest quantity of flour per bushel, is more profit- 



48 



THE WHEAT OULTURIST. 



able to cultivate, than a variety which affords a larger 
percentage of bran. 

6. Hardiness in winter. Yery few farmers in our 
country recognize this characteristic of wheat. Either 
they do not believe it, or they have not given the sub- 
ject sufficient thought to satisfy their minds, that one 
kind of wheat may produce tender plants that the cold 
weather will destroy, while the plants of another variety, 
growing in the same soil, will not be injured by the cold 
weather. I consider this characteristic of wheat one of 
the most excellent features that can be named in any va- 
riety of winter grain. 

Let me not be misunderstood on this point. 1 do 
not mean that the young plants of a hardy variety will 
not be lifted out by the freezing and thawing of wet 
ground, while the plants of a tender variety will be de- 
stroyed by the upheaval of the surface of the land. That 
is not my idea. I^o wheat plant can resist the action 
of the frost in heaving out the roots, when wet ground 
freezes and thaws. But, what I desire to be understood 
on this point is, that on dry land, which is naturally 
dry, or has been made so by under-draining, the plants 
of one variety of wheat will endure the rigors of winter 
without injury, while those which sprang from another 
variety of wheat sowed at the same period, will experi- 
ence such serious injury by the cold weather — not by 
being lifted out by the frost — that the product of grain 
will not be half a crop. 

A farmer can determine by observation whether a 
wheat plant has been lifted out of the soil by the 
frost, or whether the dead or injured stems and leaves 
remain as they grew. If wheat plants die without being 
lifted out by the frost, the evidence is conclusive that 



THE WHEAT CULTrUIST. 



49 



the variety is not so hardy as it should be. Every wheat- 
grower should take critical observations on this subject, 
with a purpose to reject a variety that will not endure 
the winter satisfactorily, and to improve those kinds 
that appear most hardy. 

6. Regularity of Rows of Grain.— K. perfect variety 
of wheat will produce regular and uniform rows of 
grain; and the kernels mil all appear of a uniform 
shape and color. When the variety is not perfect, the 
heads will exhibit irregularities of form, like the Weeks 
Wheat on a succeeding page. The Andriolo shows a 
perfect wheat. The form of the heads, the color and 
shape of the kernels, may always be relied on, as a cer- 
tain index to the purity of the variety. 

7. Stiffness of Straw. — Some kinds of wheat will 
lodge, or fall flat to the ground, long before harvest 
time ; while the stems of another kind will maintain an 
erect position until the grain is perfectly matured. The 
ears of grain will never swell out full and plump, filled 
with large kernels, if the stems are not kept in an erect 
position till harvest time. Grain that has a slender 
straw, therefore, should be rejected ; and a variety should 
be chosen that produces stems which will not lodge, 
unless the growing crop is beaten down by protracted 
storms in connection with driving wind. 

The Habit of the Wheat Plant. 

By habit is understood the manner of growth and 
development of the stem, leaves, and roots. In order to 
be able to cultivate wheat with satisfactory success, a 
farmer should have a correct understanding and a lively 
appreciation of the habit of the growing plants, which 
will enable him to prepare the soil, put in the seed at 

3 



50 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



the proper depth, sow the most desirable quantity per 
acre, and give the growing crop the proper cultivation. 

In order to obtain a more correct idea of the habit 
of the wheat plant, experiments should be made by 
planting a few kernels of wheat. 




Fig. S.— Wheat plant. 



The accompanying illustration of a young wheat plant, 
which sprang from a kernel planted by myself, will 



THE WHEAT CIILTTIEIST. 



51 



serve to show something of the habit of wheat. Every 
kernel sends out numerous long roots and rootlets, as 
represented bv the figure. The kernel was buried about 
one inch deep. The longest leaf was about four inches 
long when the sketch was made. The roots which 
spring from the kernel are called the primary roots. 
At A, a little below the surface of the soil, is a ring, or 
bulb, in the stem, from whence the coronal, or secondary 
roots spring, which all spread out horizontally ; while the 
primary roots strike downward as far as the soil has been 
pulverized ; and where the subsoil is not compact, the 
roots frequently grow from one to four feet below the 
stratum of soil moved by the plough. 

Here is a point of eminently practical importance to 
wheat-growers, which will be explained more fully under 
the heading of the Advantages of Drilling in the Seed, 
viz. : when the grain is deposited from one to two inches 
deep, the primary roots, which issue from the kernel, 
and the secondary roots springing from the joint A, are 
so near each other that freezing and thawing of the soil 
is not so liable to injure the plants during a mild winter 
or late spring, as the numerous roots and fibres hold the 
soil in a kind of mat, which prevents the frost from 
heaving out the young plants. 

The habit of the wheat plant is further illustrated by 
the accompanying figure of a wheat plant which 
sprang from a kernel planted six inches below the sur- 
face. The leaves, it will be perceived, appear slender 
and not so strong and luxuriant as those of the pre- 
ceding plant. There is a plausible and philosophical 
reason for it. The substance which composes the kernel 
is transformed into the primary roots and stem. If the 
kernel is small, and is buried deep, there is sometimes 



52 



THE WHEAT (JULTTJEIST. 



Dot enough nourishment in it to form a stem to reach 
the surface of the ground. When this is the case, both 

roots and stem 
cease to grow, 
and die before 
the young 
plant had 
come up. In 
five days after 
the kernel was 
planted, the 
first leaf ap- 
p e a r e d. In 
two days more 
the leaves 
were develop- 
ed as here rep- 
resented. The 
joint at A, in- 
sures the for- 
mation of a 
system of sec- 
ondary roots, 
the office of 
which is to 
take up nour- 
ishment for 
the gi'owth 
and fructifica- 
tion of the plant. At this point also the tillering of the 
plant takes place, and not where the primary roots unite 
with the stem at the base. The stem of this plant is 
represented as having been doubled. 




Fig. 9. — A young wheat plant from a kernel planted deep. 



THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



53 



TrLLEEDsG OF THE WhEAT PlAN-T. 



As an effectual means of multiplying the young- 
wheat plants, where the soil is sufficiently rich to sustain 
more than one stem, 
nature has provided 
for an increase of 
the stems, just in 
proportion to the 
amount of roots. 

The illustration 
herewith given rep- 
resents a stool of 
growing wheat 
which has sprung 
from a single kernel. 
If the soil is rich, so 
that large and strong 
roots are formed 
which afford more 
nom'ishment than 
one stem can appro- 
priate to its growth 
and development, 
other plumules or 
stems will continue 
to appear until they 
can take up all the 
nom'ishment that 
the complete mat of 
roots supplies. See 
this subject more ful- -^^a- lo.— stool of wheat, 

ly explained under the head of Thick and Thin Seeding. 




54: 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTIRIST. 



The tillers always spring from the joint, knot, or bulb, 
just below the surface of the ground, when the seed is 
planted more than one inch deep. When the kernels 
are planted very shallow, it seems difficult to determine 
whether the new stems or tillers start from the grain, 
from the seminal, or primary roots, or from the coronal, 
or secondary roots. This a matter of little consequence. 
Yet the fact that the young wheat plant does tiller is a 
valuable one ; and practical wheat-growers may take 
profitable advantage of it. 

I have seen stools of wheat ha^dng forty-eight stems ; 
and have had reliable accounts of stools of over seventy 



stems with perfect heads. C. Miller planted a few ker- 
nels of wheat on the 2d day of June ; and in August, 
one of the plants had tillered so much that he was en- 
abled to divide it into eighteen distinct plants, all of 
which were transplanted. After a few weeks, these had 




Fig. 11.— stool of stubble. 



THE WHEAT CIJLTrEIST. 



55 



tillered to such an extent, that the number of single 
plants put out before winter was sixty-seven. The next 
spring all these plants continued to tiller, until the num- 
ber of growing stalks, from one kernel, amounted to five 
hundred. The soil was in an excellent state of fertility ; 
and the product of grain reported from a single kernel, 
was so large, that I cannot receive it with sufficient con- 
fidence to enable me to record -the result in this place. 
What I have penned will be amply sufficient to show the 
practical farmer, when he has only one or a dozen ker- 
nels of wheat, how he may obtain more than a thou- 
sand-fold in one season. By understanding the habit of 
the wheat plant, when producing a new variety of grain, 
a farmer may accomplish in one year, more than he 
would ,be able to do in three seasons, if he be ignorant 
of this peculiar habit of the growing plant. 



How THE Stems are Formed. 

Trees are exogenous plants ; but wheat and the other 
grains are endogenous. Trees and some other kinds of 
plants increase in height by the growth of the outside 
and the outer extremity of branches. But the stems of 
wheat increase in height by lengthening the cylindrical 
portions between the joints. The straw, or tubular stem, 
is formed nearly the way that lead pipe is made. The 
melted lead is forced out of an issue at the under side 
of a huge iron mould, by means of a piston fitting air- 
tight, which is forced down upon the lead equal to a 
superincumbent pressure of one thousand tons ! The 
tube issues from the mould slowly, so that the metal has 
sufficient time to cool before it leaves the mould. 
Within a space of six inches in the mould, the lead pipe 



56 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



may be found in every stage of formation, from perfect 
liquidity to a solid. Perhaps an inch from the outside 
of the issue of the mould, the lead is in a semi-plastic 
state. A little farther up, the lead tube is in a semi- 
fluid condition. On the upper side of the joints of 
wheat straw, down in the sheaths, which fit the straw 
cylinders perfectly air-tight, the material which forms 
the straw is in a liquid state. The sheath is the mould, 
and the straw is the piston. By the vital expansion of 
the liquid above the joints, the length of the straw is 
increased between them, so that the upward growth of 
the plant takes place above every joint. If there be six 
joints in one straw, and the length of each is increased 
only one-eighth of an inch in twenty-four hours, the 
head of grain will be elevated above the roots three- 
fourths of an inch per day. 

These facts in vegetable physiology will enable us to 
understand why the stalks of Indian corn often grow 
more than two inches in height in less than a day ; 
and we perceive, also, something of the practical im- 
portance of having an abundant supply of nourishment 
for the roots of the growing wheat to take up and ap- 
propriate to the growth and develoj^ment of the straw, 
at that critical period when portions of the straw are in 
a liquid state ; as the wheat plant cannot lay up in store 
plant food to be employed in promoting the growth of 
the various parts at the time when the pabulum is 
needed most. The growth of wheat plants suggests 
many interesting thoughts to which I shall not allude, 
as the purpose of this treatise is primarily to bring 
out items of a practical character, without bm'dening 
the reader with interesting theories of no practical 
utility. * 



THE TVHEAT CrLTTEIST. 



57 



ClbiatoloGtY of T\^heat. 

For more than thirty vear^, I have taken observations 
on this subject, with a special reference to ascertaining 
Avhat are the facts in the case witli reference to the ch- 
rnatology of the Avheat plant. ]Mt purpose has been, 
if possible, to lav do^vn sorne reliable guide for be- 
ginners v.-ho rnay exi-t hereafter. But I regret to say, 
that I have been able to hnd nothing to corroborate the 
popular theory in relati'jn to selecting wheat from dif- 
ferent latitudes, with a view to sectire a variety that 
will ripen as early as it p'Ossible f jr a crop of wheat to 
mature. iT may ^tate, in parentheses, in this place, as 
the idea is quite irrelevant to the subject, that the ulti 
mate object in proctiring seed wheat from other climates, 
is to get a variety of grain that will ripen before the 
wheat midge commences its ravages. Late-ripening 
wheat is far more hable to be destroyed by the wheat 
midge than if the grain matured ten to f luirteen days 
earlier. See this subject elucidated under its appro- 
priate heading — Selecting Eo.rly Yarietles.) 

Tarmers have always said that, in order to obtain a 
variety of grain that will ripen earlier in the season, the 
seed must be obtained in a latitude farther to the north, 
except for wheat, which must be brought from a south- 
ern latitttde. Xurnerous experiments have been re- 
corded, showing that wheat brought from a latittide 
farther north, failed to mature as early in the season as 
the same variety had been acctistorned to ripen where the 
seed grew ; and when the seed was brotight fi'om the 
south, the same failure was observable. 

I have, therefore, arrived at the following deliberate, 



58 



THE WHEAT CULTTIEIST. 



and I think correct conclusion : that wheat is not differ- 
ent from Indian corn, and other grain, as it regards 
climatology. I believe that seed wheat is governed by 
the same laws that control other nseful plants. The 
seasons are so different that the same variety, cultivated 
by the same farmer, and where soil and location are as 
nearly alike as it is practicable to have them, will not 
ripen at the same period in two, three, or four succeed- 
ing harvests. Consequently, when seed is brought from 
the north, and it fails to produce a satisfactory crop, and 
to ripen as soon as the same variety has been accus- 
tomed to mature, nothing definite is proved, in regard 
to the climatology of the wheat plant; because the 
field where the wheat was grown, may have been a 
warm and quick soil, having a southern exposure ; and 
the crop may have had the advantages of superior culti- 
vation and a propitious season, and every circumstance 
favoring a bountiful crop. On the contrary, the seed 
may be sowed in a soil not so fertile as where it grew, 
which would make a marked difference in the next crop. 
Besides this, the soil may be cold, clammy, and late, the 
cultivation inferior, the season uupropitious, and everj^- 
thing adverse to the production of a bountiful crop early 
in the growing season. 

This is the manner in which all our experiments have 
been conducted. Consequently, the conclusions are in- 
correct. Because some farmers have obtained their seed 
wheat at a few degrees south of their own locality, and 
by suj^erior cultivation and richer ground and propi- 
tious seasons have succeeded in raising better crops 
than southern farmers, it is not safe and in accordance 
with the laws of vegetable physiology to conclude that 
we must secure seed wheat from a southern latitude in 



THE TVHEAT CTLTrPJST. 



59 



order to have tlie crop ri}jen as early as practicable. 
There are many things that will exert a marked in- 
fluence uii the growth and friictilicatic'n of wheat, which 
shonld not be overlooked when c-ne is- conducting an ex- 
periment to detennine any p.jint touching the climatol- 
ogy of wheat, or of any jtlier plant, 
"j. S. Lippincott. Hadd^.nildd. J., writes c-n this 
subject : 

•'• TThen importing seed wheat and any other seed of 
new or superior varieties of plants, attention should 
always be directed to the po'jiiliarities of the soil and 
climate imder which they 'M-i^iiiated. and tho.-e under 
which it is proposed to grow them. English varieties 
of spring wheat that are sown in Febrnarv or early in 
March, have the benefit of early spring grrjVv-th. and 
of a milder and m.:-ister summer than a spring-srjwn 
wheat can have in the e-~tern Thii:e<i States. Tht hiil- 
iu*e that has attended rcceii: att^nijjts to intrL-hu'je 
English varieties of wheat is no new thing, such hav- 
insT been the almost universal result for manv vears 
past. 

•'If it be true that each variety of grain is adapted 
to a specific climate in which it grov-s perfectly, and 
where it does not degenerate when supplied with pro- 
per and sufiicient notmshment. may not the considera- 
tion of the origin (jf each variety we pr^jpose t'j sow be 
of more imp'jrtance than has yet been acccu'ded to it in 
the selection of minor varieties, the product of oim own 
country i The varieties of wheat that have originated 
apparently by accident tfor there are no accidents in 
nattu'ei. or from peculiar culture, do not enj 'jy all the 
surrc'im dings necessary fjr perfect contintious prc'duct. 
CaiLses yet imexplained are ever at work rnociifying the 



60 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



germ of the new growth, and the guardian care of man 
is needed to preserve unimpaired or to perfect the al- 
ready improved sorts. In most soils we are aware that 
wheat degenerates rapidly if the seed be sown year after 
year where it was produced. IsTor is it sufficient to pre- 
vent degeneration that the seed be taken from a differ- 
ent field ; but that grown on a soil of different (quality is to 
be preferred ; and if from a different climate, but not 
widely diverse, it is found that the product is increased 
in quality and in quantity. 

" English-grown seed when sown in Ireland generally 
comes to maturity ten days or two Aveeks earlier than 
the native-grown seed. In general, plants propagated 
from seed produced on a warm, sandy soil, will grow 
rapidly in whatever soil the seed is sown ; and plants 
from seed produced in a stiff, cold soil are late in grow- 
ing, even in a warmer soil. On limestone soils, which 
are often heavy, wheat seed, the product of sandstone 
regions, generally succeeds best. The experience of a 
Kentucky farmer shows that seed wheat obtained from 
a northern locality has failed with him, owing to late 
ripening and consequent injury from rust. The experi- . 
ment was tried with three varieties of northern-grown 
seed, and with the same result in each case. When 
wheat from a southern locality was sown by the same 
experimenter, his crop ripened early, was free from rust 
and disease, and improved in sample over the original ; 
while the main crop, in the same district, was ruined by 
rust and other diseases. This experience was corrobor- 
ated by the result of four seasons of growth ; and the 
southern-grown seed, because of its early ripening, is 
rapidly superseding all the later wheats in the district 
referred to. The kind of wheat introduced from the 



THE WHEAT CULTUIilST. 



61 



more southern region of Tennessee, or perhaps northern 
Alabama, is the ' Early May,' which, though small, pos- 
sesses superior flouring qualities, and is now the ordi- 
nary wheat of some northern counties of Kentucky, 
where it does not deteriorate, but improves in quality. 
The controversy that was originated by the introduction 
of the Tennessee ' Early May ' wheat into northern lo- 
calities appears to have settled into the belief that the 
selection of southern-grown, early-ripening varieties is 
judicious where it is necessary that the grain should 
attain early maturity. 

" The ' Mediterranean ' is an early-ripening southern 
wheat, which it is said was introduced in 1819 from 
Genoa, Italy, by John Gordon, of Wilmington, Dela- 
ware. It is still an early-ripening and very valuable 
wheat, adapted to many districts where the more ten- 
der varieties, subject to the attacks of the Hessian fly, 
midge, or the rust, have rendered resort to this kind 
necessary. The introduction of the Mediterranean has 
proved an invaluable boon to many districts. Many 
other valuable kinds, noted for early maturity, etc., are 
of southern origin. The Rochester, or original White 
Flint, is said to have been of Spanish origin. Tlie 
Turkisli White Flint is not affected by fly, rust, or 
midge. The China or China Yel vet wheat ri^^ens at 
the same early date as does the 'Mediterranean,' as 
also does the Malta, or White Smooth Mediterranean. 
The ' Early Japan ' wheat, from seed brought by Com- 
modore Perry, is also from a warmer region than our 
own, and ripens early. So valuable has this variety 
been deemed by one grower, that he asserts that had 
Commodore Perry brought many bushels, it would ere 
this have paid the expenses of the expedition from the 



62 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



increased productiveness tlirongli earl}^ ripening and 
adaptation to tlie wants of the country. 

"All attempts to ripen wheat early by sending farther 
north for seed have signally failed, says a Kentucky 
farmer. The experiment of sowing Canada-grown wheat 
in Peimsylvania resulted in a ripening of the crop two 
weeks later than that grown from native seed. As to the 
cereals, which, as we have said, possess great flexibility, 
and are readily subject to the influences of soil and 
climate, we might naturally expect to find that wheat 
grown for a long time in southern Tennessee or northern 
Alabama, where the mean temperature of March equals, 
if it does not surpass, that of April in northern Ken- 
tucky and southern Ohio, would acquire a tendency to 
early vegetation, which it would retain when removed 
to more northern localities, and the plant be thus en- 
abled by early matm-ity to escape the high heats of early 
summer, and insect enemies which appear at the period 
of the late ripening of northern-grown wheats. Though 
it may be advisable to use southern-grown wheat for 
seed, the rule, we fear, will not apply if such seed has 
grown more than two or three degrees farther south. 
All northern planters who have experimented mth 
southern-gro^^'n seed-maize have learned that they can- 
not ripen the crop if the seed has been brought from a 
few degrees of lower latitude. This arises from the 
sudden decline of the temperature of September and Octo- 
ber, and the early access of killing frosts, which shorten 
the period of growth to which the large and rank- 
growing southern kinds of corn have been accustomed, 
though the summer heats may have been the same as 
they had known in their native place. In the case of 
the southern wheats removed to a northern soil, the 



THE WHEAT CELTUPcIST. 



63 



variety is not more rank or strong-grooving, does not 
appear to reqnire a longer season, bnt lias had im- 
pressed upon it a proclivity to early vegetation by tlie 
influence of tlie early lieats of March and April, vdiich 
are not known in the north nntil April and May re- 
spectively." 

dltfeeexce betaveex avixtek ^heat axd spees'g 
Wheat. 

It lias been maintained uy writers on wheat cnltnre 
that the distinction between winter and spring wheat 
is one which arises entirely from the seascai in which 
the seed has nsnally been sown ; and that they can 
readily be converted into each other by srjwing earlier 
or later, and gradnally accelerating or retarding their 
growths. If a winter variety is caused to germinate 
slightly, and then checked by exposure to a low tem- 
perature, or freezing, nntil it can be sown in spring, 
some writers have asserted that it may be converted 
into a spring wheat. 

It requires a long time to change winter wheat into 
a spring crop. Still, it can be done, by persevering for 
half a dozen successive years. The usual way to change 
a winter wheat to spring variety is. to put in the seed 
a month later every season, until the period of vernal 
seed-time is reached. This makes it necessary to sow 
wheat during the winter months. But the desired 
object can be accomplished in a much more expeditious 
way than to sow seed in December, and the product 
of that crop, the next January, arnl the next seascai in 
February, the next in March, and the next in April. 

The most expeditious way to change winter wheat to 



64 



THE WHEAT CULTUBIST. 



spring grain is, to have the ground all ready for the seed 
in late autumn ; and then, the day before the ground 
is frozen up solid, sow and harrow in, or di'ill in the 
seed. Unless the ground is covered with a deep snow, 
the grain will seldom germinate until the following 
spring. (Read the remarks on another page of this 
treatise, under the head of Sowing Wheat in Winter.) 
Should there be a heavy body of snow on the ground 
for two or three months, the wheat will sometimes veg- 
etate, and get a fair start, before the growing season 
commences the next spring. As a general rule, wheat 
sowed at such a time does not succeed satisfactorily 
the first, nor the second season. But let the seed be 
selected with care for a few successive years, and 
sowed in the early part of the growing season ; and 
after a few years, if the experiment has been conducted 
on a soil which is in an excellent state of fertility, a 
new variety of spring wheat will have been secured. 

In attempting to produce a new variety of spring 
wheat from winter grain, seed of a very hardy and 
prolific variety should be selected, in preference to 
taking seed of some ordinary variety. 

A writer inquired of the Editor of the " Germantown 
Telegraph" : "What is Spring Wheat ? Is it a distinct 
species of grain from winter wheat, and if so, where has 
it come from ? If not, how was it produced from winter 
wheat ? I have applied in many quarters for answers to 
these questions without success. A reply will oblige 
many besides myself" The Editor answered : " Spring 
wheat is a mere variety of winter wheat. Some of the 
oldest botanists made them distinct species ; but winter 
wheat, sown early in spring, has ripened grain the same 
year ; and other changes are produced in a similar way. 



THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



65 



There are many varieties of wheat, of more or less per- 
manence — produced by a difference of climate, or by 
successive sowings of selected grains, with some con- 
tinued peculiarity observed. Even the compound heads 
of the Egyptian wheat (see Egyjptian Wheat) produce 
single spikes after a while." 

The author of the Farmer's Dictionary states that : 
" The distinction between the winter and summer wheats 
is one which arises entirely from the season in which 
they have been usually sown ; for they can readily be 
converted into each other by sowing earlier or later, and 
gradually accelerating or retarding their growth. The 
difference in color between red and white wheats is 
owing chiefly to the soil ; white wheats gradually be- 
come darker, and ultimately red in some stiff, wet soils, 
and the red wheats lose their color and become first 
yellow and then white on rich, hght, and mellow soils. 
It is remarkable that the grain sooner changes color 
than the chaff and straw : hence we have red wheats with 
white chaff, and white wheats with red chaff', which on 
the foregoing principle is readily accounted for. The 
chaff" retains the original color when the skin of the 
grain has already changed to another. We state this 
on our own experience." 

J. H. Klippart, in his Wheat Plant, says : "To con- 
vert winter into spring wheat, nothing more is necessary 
than that the winter wheat should be allowed to germi- 
nate slightly in the fall or winter, but kept from vegeta- 
tion by a low temperature or freezing, until it can be 
sown in the spring. This is usually done by soaking 
and sprouting the seed, and freezing it while in this 
state, and keeping it frozen until the season for spring 
sowing has arrived. Only two things seem requisite, 



66 



THE WHEAT CULTDKIST. 



germination and freezing. It is probable that winter 
wheat sown in the fall, so late as only to germinate in the 
earth, without coming up, would produce a grain which 
would be a spring wheat if sown in April instead of 
September. The experiment of converting winter wheat 
into spring wheat has met with great success. It re- 
tains many of its primitive winter-wheat qualities, and 
is inferior in no respect to the best varieties of spring 
wheat, and produces at the rate of twenty-eight bushels 
per acre." 



The Fastldiousxess of GKOwmG Wheat. 

It has been stated by a certain writer, that " the 
wheat plant has no greater enemy than another wheat 
plant." But I cannot coincide with that assertion, as it 
is not in keeping with the habit of the wheat plant. 
If the wheat plant disliked the presence of another 
wheat plant, the original stool would not surely throw 
out numerous stems by its side, which should be attached 
to the same system of roots. But it is safe to say 
that the growing wheat dislikes the close proximity of 
grass or noxious weeds. And more than this, wheat 
has a capricious taste for its plant food, quite as much 
so as human beings, whose taste is so delicate that they 
can subsist on none but the most delicious and con- 
centrated nourishment. Wheat must bear undisputed 
sway where the plants grow, or the stems, leaves, and 
grain will never be fully developed. Besides this, the 
growing wheat will not appropriate its nourishment from 
the rough material, as grass and clover do. Some plants 
will decompose stones, and hard atoms of the earth, and 
thus prepare plant food for its own use. But if a lib- 



THE WHEAT CULTTIRI8T. 



67 



eral supply of pabulum has not been prepared by the vege- 
tation and decay of other plants, the young wheat j)lant 
fails to attain its wonted size, and to yield its accustom- 
ed amount of grain. Growing wheat must have its ap- 
propriate and chosen pabulum, or it will be folly to at- 
tempt to grow this kind of grain. Wheat, like the 
grape, must and will have mineral food. The wheat 
plant cannot produce fine grain out of coarse straw and 
barren clods of earth. 

FoECE m THE Yegetation of Wheat. 

The exercise of force in the production of the wheat 
plant is an idea that is seldom thought of by farmers 
of common intelligence. There is a vital force exer- 
cised when the kernel first sends out the germ and the 
roots ; and this force is constantly exercised, until every 
plant is fully developed and the seed matured. It is 
one of the fundamental laws of the universe, that where 
there is motion there must be the exercise of some 
force. When masons build a house, a force adequate to 
the erection of the various parts of the edifice must be 
exerted in fitting one part to another and bringing 
everything to its proper place. There is a constant ex- 
ercise of force against the force of gravitation, until the 
house is finished. So it is in the growth of a wheat 
plant : the roots must be formed, and the stem must be 
produced by the vital force of the growing plant. 
There is great force exercised by the plant in throwing 
out numerous roots, sometimes as far downward, or in 
a horizontal direction, as the plumule, or stem, grows 
upward. 

That man who has made holes in the ground with a 



68 



THE WHEAT CIJLTTJEIST. 



crowbar, understands something of the force required by 
plants to spread through the hard soil. In many locali- 
ties a wooden staff can be thrust into the ground three 
or fonr feet deep, with a very little force. On the con- 
trary, in most localities, it is exceedingly difficult to 
work a crowbar through the soil. What a powerful 
force mnst necessarily be exerted, then, by a plant, 
in pushing its roots through the hard soil. We frequent- 
ly have ocular demonstration of the force exerted by 
small plants and trees. It is a common occurrence, 
where the soil is heavy, to see a crust of earth, that is 
formed over the growing stems, to be lifted up, so that 
the yonng stems appear above the surface of the ground, 
often throwing off a crust of earth more than ten times 
heavier than the entire plant would be, were both weigh- 
ed in a balance. Then, there is the exercise of a con- 
stant force to keep the plant in an erect position. In 
many instances, the force of gravity on the growing 
plant exceeds the vital force exercised in developing the 
various parts and keeping the stem erect. When this 
is the case, stems fall to the ground before the grain has 
come to perfect maturity. We frequently see the effect 
of the operation of the vital force of a tree, the growing 
roots of which will lift heavy flag-stones of the side- 
walk several inches above their level position ; and 
roots of trees growing near dwelling-houses frequently 
grow along the foundation wall and among the stones, 
and damage the foundation of the dwelling to such an 
extent, that repairs are required. 

In the production of every plant, from the most deli- 
cate spear of grass to the towering oaks and rocking 
pines of the forest, there is a wonderful effort of nature 
to achieve a given result. The numerous fine rootlets 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



69 



and the tender blades are met by opposing forces. If 
the intelligent hnsbandman will break up the hard soil, 
and reduce it to a fine and mellow tilth, a large share of 
the vital force of the plant that is used up in pushing 
the roots and stems through the soil, will be employed 
in developing the stem, leaves, and fruit. 

The source of the force of the growing wheat plant, 
for example, is the substance in the kernel. If the 
kernel be small, of course the vital force must be very 
limited. For this reason, tender plants cannot flourish 
luxuriantly, when they first begin to live, if there be 
numerous lumps in the soil. Roots of tender plants, 
like wheat, seldom have sufiicient force to enter hard 
lumps of earth. The roots will pass around and 
between them. But, as hard lumps furnish very little 
plant food until they are pulverized, wheat plants ex- 
pend so large a proportion of the vital force in perform- 
ing what implements of husbandry should do, that but 
little force is left to develop and mature the grain. 

Stevens, in the Book of the Farm, states that the force 
of the vegetation of a single seed is so great as to be 
able to raise two hundred pounds, as has been proven by 
the process being made to split hollow balls of iron. 

Peolieicact of Wheat. 

The prolificacy of our cereals, and of wheat in par- 
ticular, is a subject that has been seriously neglected for 
many years past, even by those who have a reputation 
for being excellent farmers. Seed wheat should be 
selected e\^ery successive season, with a direct reference 
to the prolificacy of the variety. In many iustances, 
thirty bushels of grain might just as well be gro^vn on 



70 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



one acre as "fifteen, witli the same cultivation and the 
same fertilization, When Tvheat is in the path of 
degeneracy, the best soil in the country, the most favor- 
able season, and the most thorough and intelligent culti- 
vation, will fail to produce a remunerative crop. 

Intelligent breeders of svdne select their seed animals 
with an especial reference to the prolificacy of the dam 
that will raise twelve or fourteen pigs. In some in- 
stances we see this principle neglected or entirely 
ignored. And what is the consequence ? Why, instead 
of twelve or fom'teen sleek, plump, and thrifty pigs, the 
sow drops only two or three at a litter. On the same 
principle, we often see short heads of wheat only half 
filled with small kernels of grain, when, if the seed had 
only been selected ^vith a reference to its prolificacy, 
the yield would have been twice the amount reah'zed. 

It is not possible for any one to compute the pecuniary 
advantage that would accrue to om' nation, were all the 
farmers of the country to make a proper selection of jiis 
seed wheat for only a few successive years. There is a 
broad and inviting field open on this subject, for every 
ambitious farmer to exercise his skiU in improving the 
productiveness of our wheat-growing fields by produc- 
ing new varieties of wheat which will yield large heads 
and plimip kernels of choice grain. The, j>rolifimcy of 
wheat may be improved to a wonderful extent by proper 
management ; and if a prolific variety of wheat can be 
brought out, that will yield only a few bushels more per 
acre than the ordinary varieties, the advantage in the 
aggregate would be a consideration of no small magni- 
tude. Dr. Ycelcker, in a recent letter, before the Royal 
Institution, London, stated that in the County of i^orfolk 
the average produce of wheat was, in 1773, fifteen 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



71 



bushels per acre ; in 1796, twenty-eight bushels per 
acre ; in 1862, thirty- two to thirty-six bushels per acre 
— the increase being due to drainage, tillage, and to the 
growth of improved varieties. 

On this subject, Hon. Isaac Newton, Commissioner 
of Agriculture, says : "A new variety of wheat intro- 
duced into a district has in some instances proved of 
very great value. It is said that the product of one 
quart of a variety brought from E'orth Carolina in 1845 
had in nine years benefited the farmers of Preble 
County, Ohio, alone, more than $100,000 by the gain 
over what would have accrued from the continued use 
of the old varieties." 

The prolificacy of a variety can be determined only 
by experimenting with it, from year to year. The pro- 
lificacy of grain cannot be determined by the appearance 
of the kernels, any sooner than one can select a prolific 
hen, or sow, or a prolific rabbit. 

Large Wheat Stories. 

I have observed, for a few years past, that almost 
every agricultural journal will record now and then a 
fabulous account of the enormous yields of wheat per 
acre, which are published in good faith ; but which are, 
in reality, in numerous instances, unmitigated false- 
hoods, originated for some selfish purpose. I regret to 
feel under obligation to record this fact, that I have per- 
ceived with astonishment that honest and truthful men, 
whose word is sacred and reliable in all the ordinary 
transactions between men and neighbors, will sometimes 
teU stories about their grain which are really untrue. 
They do not mean to lie ; but the fact is, they thinh 



T2 



THE WHEAT CULTITRIST'. 



that a large yield of grain will sound well for their 
culture as skilful farmers, as well as for the productive- 
ness of their ground. Therefore, they thinli and guess 
that there may possibly be so many bushels of grain 
per acre. By and by they look at their growing crops, 
and venture to speak of forty, or fifty, or seventy bushels 
per acre ; and after thinking and talking about the mat- 
ter for a few weeks, they make the confident assertion 
that their ground produced so many bushels per acre, 
when in truth the yield was very much less than the 
quantity mentioned. I will record a few facts on this 
subject that came under my own observation, which will 
go to show that honest and truthful men will sometimes 
talk at random. 

I knew a farmer who secm'ed the prize of a county 
agricultural society for reporting a yield of one hun- 
dred and eight bushels of shelled Indian corn per acre. 
The grain was measured thus : A bushel basket was 
filled with ears as neatly as they could be placed in the 
basket. Every interstice was filled with a part of an 
ear. The grain was then shelled off and weighed. 
Taking this basketful of ears as the basis, in pounds of 
shelled grain for every bushel of ears that was after- 
ward thrown into* the basket promiscuously, without 
shelling or weighing, the yield of grain was comjputed 
at the amount just stated. The laborer who husked the 
corn disclosed the manner of measuring and computing 
the amount of grain. 

I have known other farmers to state, in the most posi- 
tive language, that they raised sixty bushels of barley 
per acre, and sixty bushels of rye, or forty or fifty bush- 
els of wheat per acre, when they had not measm'ed a 
single bushel of the grain that grew on an acre ; and 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



73 



this has been done, too, when I Icnew that their fields 
never produced more than about one-half the reported 
quantity. I have known farmers, who had gained a 
great reputation for raising excellent wheat, write to 
editors of their county papers or to certain agricultural 
journals that their crop would yield so many bushels of 
grain — an enormous product — when their neighbors 
knew that they did not raise a greater number of bush- 
els per acre than were produced on other farms. 

I once purchased a quantity of seed rye of a distant 
neighbor, who published that his rye yielded sixty bush- 
els of superior grain per acre ; and I learned the next 
season that, to all appearance, his yield of rye was no 
larger than my own, which was less than twenty-five 
bushels per acre. Only a few days ago, I read of a 
farmer wiio raised seventy-two bushels of excellent wheat 
per acre. But I never could credit the statement. Men 
sometimes count the heads of wheat that grew on one 
foot square of very fertile ground, weigh the grain, and 
make an estimate how many bushels will grow on one 
acre. But the true way is to harvest, thrash, and weigh 
the grain that actually grew on one acre. 

It would seem, that if a farmer can raise a given quan- 
tity of wheat on one foot square, he could produce a 
yield proportionately large on one acre. But let us have 
the exact weight of grain that was actually produced on 
one acre. These airy estimates of a large yield, which 
are got up for some pecuniary efi^ect, are not the true 
motive to induce farmers to cultivate their ground in a 
more thorough manner. 

I have in mind a farmer, who stated positively and 
unqualifiedly, that he was raising cabbages on his farm 
at the rate of 10,890 per acre. He said he had less than 

4 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



one acre ; but what he did have " was " — not were — ■ 
large enough to fill a half-bushel measure. As he was 
a man of truth, a person was sent to see his cabbages. 
He had one cabbage in his garden, and only one ! ! By 
an arithmetical calculation, it was found that, as there 
are 272J square feet in one square rod, if one large head 
would occupy only four square feet, 10,890 cabbages 
would stand on one acre. So the man could not be ac- 
cused of stating an untruth. 

Farmers who have seed wheat to sell will frequently 
state that their seed grain weighs so many pounds per 
bushel, or that so many bushels grew on one acre ; all 
of which may be true. But measures often vary in size. 
Scales sometimes weigh too many pounds in a hundred. 
And, besides all this, if a variety of wheat does weigh 
66 lbs. per sealed bushel, on John Smith's farm, his 
neighbor, near by, or remote, cannot expect to secure an 
equal yield, unless his soil and cultivation are both fully 
equal to John Smith's. 

I make these suggestions that beginners need not ex- 
pect to grow a hea\^^ crop of grain on inferior land, 
when they have paid an enormous price for celebrated 
seed. 

Hard, Soft, and Polish Wheats. 

Some botanists have divided wheats into different 
species, from some marked peculiarity in tlieir formation„ 
Others, considering that they mostly form hybrids when 
mixed in the sowing, and that their ^peculiarities vary 
with the soil and climate, have looked upon all the cul- 
tivated wheats as mere varieties. There are, however, 
three principal varieties, so different in appearance that 



THE WHEAT CULTTIRIST. 



they claim peculiar attention. These are the hard or 
flint wheats, the soft wheats, and the Polish wheats. 
The hard wheats are the produce of warm climates, such 
as Italy, Sicilj, and Barbary. The soft wheats grow in 
the northern parts of Europe. The Polish wheats grow 
in the country from which they deriye their name, and 
are also hard wheats. It is from their external form 
that they are distinguished from other wheats. The 
hard wheats haye a compact seed nearly transparent, 
which, when bitten through, breaks short, and shows a 
very white flour within. The soft wheats haye an opaque 
coat or skin, and which, when flrst reaped, giye way 
readily to the pressure of the finger and thumb. These 
wheats require to be well dried and hardened before they 
can be conyeniently groimd into flour. The Polish 
wheat has a chaff which is much longer than the seed, 
a large, oblong, hard seed, and an ear cylindrical in ap- 
pearance. It is a delicate spring wheat, and not yery 
productiye ; hence it has only been occasionally culti- 
A^ated by way of experiment. 

" The hard wheats contain much more gluten^ atougli, 
vdscid substance, which is yery nutritious, and which, 
containing a portion of nitrogen, readily promotes that 
fermentation, or rising^ as it is called, of the dough, 
which is essential to good, light bread. The soft wheats 
contain the greatest quantity of starch, which fits them 
for the yinous fermentation, by its conyersion into sugar 
and alcohol. Por brewing or distilling, therefore, the 
soft wheats are the best." 

LmiT or THE Wheat-Peoducixg Pegio^^. 

A great deal has been written in regard to the cli- 
matic influences on the wheat crop ; and I am sorry to 



THE WHEAT CUETrUIST. 



say that, for the most part, theories touching wheat 
have been promnlgated jrom year to year, by men who 
neyer raised a bushel of wheat, and who were utterly 
ignorant of the fnndamental principles of agriculture. 
On this subject, I herewith copy a few paragraphs from 
a work written by J. Distm-nell, on the Influence t)f 
Climate, for the purpose of showing how common it is 
for writers to reiterate, for well-established facts, cer- 
tain theories that are palpable absm-dities. The writer 
says : 

The limits of the cultm-e of wheat and the common 
cereaha are not so weU defined in the United States, and 
Canada and other portions of British America, owing to 
tJie want of correct meteorological obseryations in the 
different pai-ts of this extensiye and unexplored region. 
It is safe, howeyer, to say, that in Canada it extends 
north as fai* as the 48th parallel of latitude, Irom the 
Bay of Chaleurs to near the mouth of the Saguenay 
Eiyer, and from thence to the Lake St. John, 48 deg. 
30 min. north, including the yalley of Lake Temiscaming 
and aU the head sources of the Ottawa Eiyer, extending 
to MieliicopL'teii Bay. situated on the north shore of Lake 
Superi : : . -7 : ^ . .: min. X. lat., haying mean summer 
tempera: lire oi 59 deg. Fahr. 

"To the west of Lake Superior it embraces the yalley 
of the Lake of the TToods. on the 49th parallel, running 
northward and embracing the whole of the yalley of 
Lake Winnipeg, eleyated 700 feet aboye the ocean ; and 
the great yalley of the Saskatchewan Eiyer, extending 
stiU farther northward to the 60th parallel of north 
latitude, in the yalley of Mackenzie's Eiyer. To the 
west of the Eocky Mountains, in the northern part of 
British Columbia, and on the Island of Sitka, 57 deg. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



77 



north latitude, the culture of wheat and other cereals is 
prevented, owing to the low summer temperature which 
exists along the northwest coast of America. 

" On the south, wheat can be raised profitably in the 
western portion of Texas and Arkansas, commencing at 
about the 30th parallel of latitude, excluding the Gulf 
Coast, where cotton flourishes to great perfection. Thus 
it appears evident that wheat can be raised to advantage 
from Texas to the Britisli possessions on Mackenzie's 
River, running through about one-third of the distance 
from the Equator to the E'orth Pole, and from the At- 
lantic to the Pacific Ocean. 

The harvesting of wheat through this extensive belt 
may be said to commence in the latter part of May, and 
continue until the latter part of August. ' It is said that 
the ripening of the " staff of life " will move steadily 
northward about twelve or fifteen miles per day, like 
a wave, until it sweeps up to the northern margin of the 
great wheat belt. A marching regiment in Texas, start- 
ing for the north, could barely keep before the ripening 
wave ; and if they halted a day to rest, it would pass them. 
This wave stretches east and west across the Union, 
from the Atlantic to the confines of Kansas, and as it 
moves north it will grow longer and denser.' Minne- 
sota, extending northward to the 49th parallel of latitude, 
is one of the finest wheat-growing regions on the con- 
tinent. Indian corn also flourishes in the valley of the 
Ped Piver of the E"orth, which empties into Lake Win- 
nipeg in about 50 deg. north latitude. 

" The northern limit of wheat on the American con- 
tinent may be said to be on the line of the isothermal or 
mean mmmer temperature of 58 deg. Fahr., where is 
found a fertile soil ; while Indian corn requires a mean 



78 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



summer temperature of 66 deg. Fahr. and upward, em- 
bracing a still larger area of the earth's surface for its 
growth than that of wheat. 

" In Europe, on the coast of E'orway, and in Finland, 
wheat is raised as far north as 61 deg., in favored spots ; 
while the hardier cerealia, rye, oats, and barley, are cul- 
tivated as high as 68 deg. north latitude. 

" The growth of grass or hay as an article of commerce 
is less limited than wheat or the other cereals. It may 
be said to flourish from the 38th to the 45th parallels of 
latitude, although its limits in perfection are much less 
extensive. The belt included within the parallels of 39 
to 43 north, within the United States, having a mean 
annual temperature from 47 deg. to 53 deg. Fahr., is its 
most favorite region, where are produced the largest 
quantities, and the best quality of butter and cheese. 
South of 39 deg. north latitude, except in elevated re- 
gions, grass is of an inferior quality, and not much cul- 
tivated. In importance, as regards its value as an article 
of commerce, it vies with the product of either wheat, 
Indian corn, or cotton." 



Absukdities Exposed. 

I have great respect for historians and literary char- 
acters, who have forgotten more than I ever expect to 
know about certain things. But, when they write about 
wheat, I happen to know when they assert facts that 
can always be relied on, or whether their suggestions 
are merely assertions which can never be shown to be 
correct ; and which are not in perfect coincidence with 
the experience of practical wheat-growers. 

When I was young, farmers were accustomed to state 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



79 



that wheat could not be produced on the slopes of the 
lakes in Central New York. But now, experiments in 
raising wheat have shown that the clay loams of those 
localities yield the finest wheat. If there is any wheat 
in the country, fair crops, with good management, can 
always be found there. 

Hye was the great staple in the line of cereal grain, 
in IsTew England, so far as farmers were accustomed to 
raise grain. Consequently, if a farmer provided wheat 
bread for his family, he bought his flour, at an enor- 
mous price; because the impression was that wheat 
would not grow there. I have in mind large numbers 
of farmers, who purchase all their wheat flour, simply 
because they have imbibed the erroneous notion that 
wheat cannot be grown in Connecticut and other JSTew 
England States. 

Wheat will not grow, it is very true, where no seed 
has been sowed. E'either will apples grow in many of 
the Western States and Territories, where people affirm 
that they cannot raise apples. The true reason is, they 
fail to give apples a chance to grow. They do not plant 
trees, and give them suitable cultivation. And it is 
precisely so with wheat. It will not grow where the 
soil is not cultivated and kept in an excellent state of 
fertility. I have no confldence at all in the " climat- 
ology theory," that wheat will grow only in certain 
localities. As a general rule, where other grain and sheep 
succeed satisfactorily, fair crops of wheat can be raised, 
if the soil be enriched with the manure of fattening 
sheep, neat cattle, or fattening swine. Wheat can be 
raised on the drifting sands of ISTew Jersey, in boun- 
tiful crops, if the soil be prepared properly for the 
seed. 



80 



THE WHEAT CELTTJIilST. 



IxTEODrCTIOX OF ItALL^^s ^HEAT. 

In the volume of Transactions of the Xew York State 
AgTiciiltui'al Society for ISll. Jar Hathewav, Oneida 
Conntv. Xew York, has recorded facts touching the 
introduction of this variety of wheat, from which the 
following extracts are taken : The Italian spring wheat 
possesses a property which no other variety of this kind 
of oTain can claim — that of o-rowino- well and vieldinoj 
a fair crup of grain upon land so poor, that no other 
variety will succeed satisfactorily. On inferior land, 
tAvelve to iifteen Iju-hels uf good D-rain have been grown 
per acre. On g.jOLl grtimnd. thirty bushels per acre have 
been grown : and on the Viest wheat laud the yield has 
reached from forty to fifty bushels per acre. The orig- 
inal seed weighed, sixty-three pounds per bushel ; and the 
first crop was sown in this country in 1S32. 

This kind of wheat has a bright lemon-colored straw, 
which gives the entire crop a beautiful appearance when 
the wheat is growing. Tlie kernels have a tli'n skin of 
a bright brown color : and fi'om a given C[uantity of 
grain, m^jre fiour may be obtained than from any other 
kind of grain grown in this country. The fioni' makes 
excellent bread : and some have stated that flour made 
of this kind of wheat contains more gluten than other 
kinds of fiom\ It is said that in Italy the manufac- 
turers of macaroni prefer this kind of wheat for making 
this article of food. 

'* This kind of wheat was first introduced into this 
conntry by a gentleman from Tlorence, in Italy, who, 
marrying contrary to the wishes of his father, was 
denounced and disinherited: and smarting mider the 
severity and reproaches of an incensed parent, he re- 



THE WHEAT CULTUPvIST. 



81 



solved to emigrate to America, and to engage in agri- 
cnltm-al pursuits. He brought with him a tierce of 
seed Italian wheat to the town of Florence, Oneida 
Countj, ]^ew York, where it was used for seed with 
excellent satisfaction for a few years; but in conse- 
C|uence of injudicious management in saving seed grain 
from year to year, this variety failed to yield satisfac- 
tory crops." 

Some allowance must be made for an enthusiastic 
writer of the foregoing account of Italian wheat, as every, 
s ldlf nl farmer knows that no variety of wheat that ever 
had an existence would yield forty or fifty bushels of 
grain on poor ground. This variety failed entirely in 
some parts of the coimtry, from no other cause than the 
one alluded to — negligence in saving the seed from year 
to year. With injudicious management on the part of 
farmers in saving seed grain, the best variety of grain 
that was ever known would soon run out. 

LviPEOVE^IEXT OF TThEAT, 

A good variety of wheat is capable of being greatly 
improved, provided the soil is of the right character, 
and very fertile in wheat-producing elements. "Wlien a 
man sows a small plot of wheat in his garden which has 
always been abundantly manured, so that the soil is 
well fattened with such fertihzing material as will make 
long heads and fiill and plump kernels, he is utterly sur- 
prised at the success of his experiment in a limited way. 
He concludes that his unprecedented success must be 
attributed to the variety, when almost everything is or 
was attributable to superior cultivation and fertilization 

of the soil. A vast deal depends on having a variety, 

4* 



82 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



the characteristics of which are well established. Yet, 
if the cultivation be inferior, the cultivator will most 
assuredly reap the bitter fruits of disappointment in his 
efforts to produce a large yield of grain. 

I here"w^th condense an interesting account of experi- 
ments made in the Old World by Mr. Hallett, of 
Brighton. I will point out to young farmers — as well 
as to old ones — certain points in which this gentle- 
man as well as all others will fail, as the premises are 
wrono'. 

Mr. Hallett's first idea was to increase the tiller- 
ing power of wheat, so that less seed would be needed. 
That is all well enough, pro^dded the soil is sufficiently 
rich to furnish an abundant supply of plant food for a 
large number of stems. If a plant of wheat be induced 
by any possible means to tiller largely, and the land be 
too poor to supply nourishment sufficient to develop 
such a laro'e number of stems, the heads must be short 
and kernels of grain small. On this same principle, it 
will be found to be more profitable to grow only one 
large ear of Indian corn on a single stalk, where the 
land is not sufficiently rich to develop two, than to 
attempt to produce two ears, as they would necessarily 
be small. Yet, if the soil be so well fattened that there 
is sufficient pabulum to build up and to develop two 
large ears on a stalk, let that variety be planted. It 
will be folly to develop the habit of tillering in any 
kind of grain, unless the fertility of the soil be improved 
at the same time. Mr. Hallett proposed to improve the 
tillering characteristic by early seeding. 

His next purpose was to increase the length of the 
ears and the number of kernels of grain in every head. 
This he proposed to accomplish by careful selection, and 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



83 



by wliat he has styled " careful breeding." How far he 
has been successful the result clearly shows. 

As a startmg point, in the fall of 185Y he selected 
two heads of " nursery wheat," coming as near as pos- 
sible up to his standard of what a head of wheat sJioiild 
be. The grains of these two heads were kept separate 
and carefully dibbled in, one grain in a place, nine inches 
apart. Of one head the best grain produced ten stalks, 
with heads varying from seventy-nine to fifty-five grains, 
or a total of 688 grains. The finest ten ears, selected 
from the product of the other head, contained from 
seventy to fifty-one grains, and a total of 598 grains. 
Of the two original ears, one contained 43, and the 
other 44 grains, showing a gain of from 30 to 36 grains. 

IS^ext year the best head from the first-mentioned ear 
was planted as before. From this the best grain pro- 
duced 21 heads, containing from 91 to 55 grains per 
head, or in all 1,190. The best random head of the 
other ear was also planted ; but it was thrown out as 
being evidently inferior to the others. 

From this, Hallett deduces the first proof of the cor- 
rectness of his idea that careful breeding and cultiva- 
tion was correct, and not the random selection of good 
specimens. 

During the fall of 1859, the best head as above, con- 
taining 91 grains, and the worst, containing 65 grains, 
were separately planted. The best grain of the former 
produced 39 ears, containing 2,145 grains ; but, owing to 
the extraordinary season of 1861, the}^ were so injured 
by the wet that the two best ears, containing respectively 
Y4 and 71 grains, were the only ones sutiiciently unin- 
jured to carry on the experiment ; so that the head con- 
taining 74 grains was selected to carry on the experi- 



84: 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



ment, not because of the number of its grains — for 
there was a falling off in this respect from the previous 
year — but because of the increased tillering power. 

As before stated, in 1859, the worst grain from the 
best ear was planted. It yielded 15 ears, containing from 
87 to 61 grains, or 1,086 in all. In 1860 the best ear of 
this sample was taken, and produced 1,909 grains from 
21 heads, containing from 123 to 50 grains. This brings 
our account up to 1860 ; and as the original stock had 
been injured, Hallett started afresh from the last-men- 
tioned head, tlie best grain of which produced 24: ears, 
the best one of which contained 123 grains. In 1861 
the best grain produced 80 heads, the best one of which 
contained 132 grains. 

Let us now note Hallett's improvement : In 1857 his 
shortest head was 4| inches long, contained 44 grains, 
and gave 10 ears from the best stool. In 1862 his best 
ear was 9^ inches long, contained 132 grains, and the 
best grain produced 90 heads or stalks on one stool. 
One peculiarity in his cultm-e is the small amount of 
seed used. In his field culture, where the planting is 
necessarily done by machinery, he uses but four bushels 
on ten acres. In his large experimental plots he uses 
seed at the rate of but one bushel on ten acres, and 
plants by hand in squares of nine inches. He is a 
strong advocate of early seeding, and puts his field 
crops in, in September ; 4 bushels on 8 acres, for the 
first half of the next month, and 4 bushels on 6 acres 
for the latter half ; 4 bushels on 4 acres for the month 
after, and 4 bushels on 3 acres for the last month in the 
year. If used as a spring wheat, he advises that it 
should be put on at the rate of 4 bushels on 2^ acres. 
These directions are for drill culture, and is much 



THE WHEAT CTLTOilST. 



85 



heavier seeding tlian lie practises when planting by 
hand on his own estate. 

His experiments clearly show the tillering power of 
not only his own wheat, bnt of any wheat, where space 
is allowed for it to accomphsh this important part of its 
growth. One grain from, the best ear of 1S61 was 
planted Ijy itself on well-prepared gi'oimdj so that its 
tillering powers should be unimpeded by competition. 
The result was that, after the produce of this single 
grain was removed, the stubble covered an area five 
feet ill diameter, with SI ears averaging 7-|- inches in 
length. 

Geeat Yield oe Oxe Keexel. 

In order to show how soon the product of a single 
grain of wheat may be increased, I make the following 
extracts from Hallett's pen : ' From one grain planted 
September, 1S59. 1 shall this year. September. 1S61. drill 
forty acres. A whole ear in IS 59 would have planted 
eighty times as much.' 

I can show you a field of seven acres now up. 
which was in one grain two years ago. and one acre 
which was in one ear this day one year ago. In Sep- 
tember last (1861) I chilled thhty acres with thirty 
pecks of seed. This is now, September 30th. well up, 
and the plants as thick as I could wish.' 

Inasmuch as Hallett's success in England is very 
difierent from a trial in this country, I will give the 
result of my own trial for three years past : In 1861, 
two weeks before the end of the year, I received my 
seed direct from Hallett's farm at Brighton. It should 
have arrived sooner, but owing to causes over which 



86 



THE WHEAT CTILTUKIST. 



lie had no control, it was delayed. The next day a 
thaw ensned, and I was enabled to stir np the mud in 
one corner of my garden to the depth of three inches, 
when I came to fi'ost. A small portion of the wheat 
was put in, one grain in a place, six inches sqnare. Of 
com'se it made no show nntil spring, when it came up 
early ; bnt not yery thickly, thongh it tillered ont so 
that the nnmber of stalks yaried from eleyen on the 
best, to fiye on the worst stool. It did not all grow, 
and futm-e experiment demonstrated that about sixty- 
fiye per cent, was injured in its passage across the ocean. 
The remainder was planted in the fall of 1S65, just 
before om- regulai' seeding time ; and one quarter of an 
acre planted came up in about the aboye proportion ; 
that is, about thirty-fiye grains out of eyery hundred 
grew. This was truly a dull prospect, and was made 
more so from the fact that the midge injm-ed tlie grain 
of what did grow. Early in the fall of 1 86 6 we planted 
some of the best of our own seed as thinly as our drill 
would put it on — say one bushel to four acres ; and 
ha^aug some of our imported seed left, we put a portion 
of it in, alongside of that of our own growth, at the 
same rate, without any allowance for injiu-ed grains in 
either case. At this time the difference is in fayor of 
our own seed, it being quite as thick as our regular wheat 
on another part of the farm, while that from the im- 
ported seed makes but little show, nor should we reason- 
ably expect much from wheat seeded at the rate of six- 
teen pounds per acre, and but thirty-fiye per cent, of 
this to grow. Those who haye tried to acclimatize 
foreign wheat know that it cannot be done in one or two 
years. Thus far my experience confij*ms Hallett's idea 
that by ' breeders ' he has fix:ed the peculiar type of 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST 



8Y 



his wheat; for under the unfavorable circumstances of 
our first trial the best head was 5f inches long, and in 
the second one 6 inches long." — Gultwator. 

I' cannot forbear to allude to the disappointment 
which scores of farmers have experienced after having 
purchased improved varieties of wheat, at fabulous 
prices, of those farmers who had made their ground as 
rich as it could consistently be rendered by rich manure. 
In this manner, by careful selection and judicious culti- 
vation, they have accomplished wonders in respect to 
large and long heads and plump and a large number of 
kernels. On the contrary, slack farmers, who never 
half-cultivate their land, have sowed such choice grain, 
and produced wonders in the line of small ears and 
diminutive kernels. 

Every farmer who has any idea of growing wheat 
should experiment, in a small way, with the seed in his 
garden, where the soil is very rich. I can record nothing 
that will be so effectual in accomplishing just what 
should be done, and what wheat really requires, as a few 
well-conducted experiments for improving the excel- 
lence of the seed. 



88 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



The l^oMENCLATUEE OF Wheat. 

Wheat hybridizes so readily, and varieties lose their 
identity in so short a period of time, that farmers are 
in doubt, whenever a given variety of wheat is spoken 
of, whether they really understand what kind of wheat 
they are talking or reading about, or not. I have ob- 
served that wheat, which is raised and said to be of a 
given variety in one section of the country, is so differ- 
ent from it in another State, that when compared, side 
by side, the grain is quite as different as two distinct 
varieties. The old " Bald Wheat,'- which was once — 
say about the year 1830 — one of the finest varieties of 
wheat that was ever cultivated, lost its identity in a few 
years, by being allowed to hybridize with other varie- 
ties. The same is true of many other varieties. In 
some sections of the country, varieties of wheat that 
were originally awnless, have some awns or beards ; and 
certain varieties which were known as bearded or awned 
varieties, became partially bald. Under these circum- 
stances, one feels like a man pursuing his course in an 
unknown, dubious, and uncertain way. If our Govern- 
ment possessed sufficient authority and influence to take 
hold of this subject in a proper manner, and establish a 
common standard of merit and an intelligible descrip- 
tion of each variety, and keep every variety entirely dis- 
tinct from year to year, farmers in different parts of the 
country would be supplied with some reliable guide in 
the selection of the various desirable varieties of wheat. 

'Now, why should farmers not have standard varieties 
of grain at Washington, by which to compare the varie- 
ties of grain produced on their own farms ? It appears 
to me that if our Government would establish some 



THE WHEAT CrLTUEIST. 



89 



standard in relation to wheat, to whicli the farmers, 
north, south, east, and west, could look for reliable in- 
formation, there wonld not be so much confusion in 
regard to the varieties of wheat which are worthy of 
cultivation. 

For example : Some competent person shonld be 
authorized to collect several heads of all the improved and 
ajpproved varieties, from numerons sections of the conn- 
tiy; and then select a few ears of each variety, and 
place them in glass cases, where farmers could see them 
and compare their own grain with the standard samples 
at headquaiters. Besi'ies this, eveiy variety shonld be 
neatly illnstrated by an accurate engraving of one of 
the standard ears of grain ; and accompanving each 
illustration should be an intelligible and plain descrip- 
tion of every variety. TVere I the authority in the 
United States, I would do the same thing in this treatise. 
But were I to attempt it, my efforts would only increase 
the confusion in regard to the varieties of wheat, as my 
illustrations and descriptions of certain varieties, which 
might be quite correct in a given locality, would not 
coincide with grain of those names in other sections of 
the country. 

To illustrate still fmther the extreme difficulty of 
attempting to do anything coiTectly. by way of estab- 
lishing the identity of any variety of grain, the reader 
must remember that the author of tliis treatise may 
give an illusti*ation and description of numerous varie- 
ties of wheat, which are well known in some States, 
but which may be very unlike them all in other States. 
This difference should be settled by some authority 
which the whole country will respect and receive as 
coiTect. 



90 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



Kames of Yaeieties. 

I jDurposed, wlien I commenced writing this book, to 
record the name of every variety of wheat that I could 
hear of. But, when I met with the long list of names 
in the Report of the Superintendent of the Experimental 
Farm, Washington, in the Department of Agricultm^e, 
for 1865, I felt so thoroughly disgusted with names, that 
I at once abandoned the idea of presenting the reader 
with a list of the numerous varieties of wheat. I will 
give a few, simply to shov^what intolerable jaw-breakers 
some men will employ, when a monosyllable, that any- 
body could remember without difficulty, and which a 
child could speak, would be ten thousand times better 
in every respect. Here they are : Frumento Andriolo 
Esastico Rosso ; Tauntondean ; Flickling's Hallet's 
Genealogical ; Schonermark's ; Canadischer and Wiez- 
acker ! 

There is another consideration touching the names of 
the different varieties of wheat which has induced me 
to omit names, which is this : Wheat bearing the same 
name, which has been produced on different kinds of 
soil, will frequently be as unlike as two distinct varie- 
ties, even when both samples grew in one field, only two 
or three years previous. The introduction, therefore, 
of a long list of names of wheat, which has never been 
tested, and which will never succeed, even if properly 
cultivated, would seem to be adding confusion and be- 
wilderment, where the subject might otherwise be 
moderately clear and intelligible for all practical purpose. 

The name of every variety of wheat should be signi- 
ficant of something, if possible ; and always short, so 
that it may be remembered without difficulty. 



THE WHEAT CULTrEIST. 



91 



The Pedi&eee T^'heat. 

This celebrated variety of wheat, which caused so mncli 
siu'prise among the tanners of America a few years 
ago, is a winter variety ; and one of the heads is rep 
resented by the accompanying illustration , > 
as the heads appeared before the variety |.\ 
had been improved by jndicions selection 
of seed from year to year in connection with 
thorough cultivation on a rich soil adapted 
to this kind of grain. I have had one of 
the original heads engraved, for the pur- 
pose of showing how grain may be im- 
proved. 

The heads are not smooth and beautiful, 
like many of our popular varieties ; and 
there is nothing remarkable about the 
variety, any more than there would be in 
any of the choice varieties of winter wheat 
that are now raised in various parts of the 
United States. 

This Pedigree ^heat was a very prolitic 
variety ; and had the samples which were 
sown been cultivated on rich wheat soil, 
this variety would, doubtless, have proved 
one of the choicest varieties of Avheat that 
was ever cultivated in America. This A^a- 
riety was defective in one very important 
respect, namely, the grain was liable to shell 
out easily, when the crop was not harvested 
before the wheat was dead ripe. The grain 
made excellent flour, and there was a small 
percentage of bran. 



Fig. 12. 
Hallefs Pedigree 
wheat. 



92 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



Fig. 13. — Improved Pedi- 
gree wheat. 



The head of wheat on this page re- 
presents the same variety as is shown 
on the preceding page. But this head 
is an exact representation of the Ped- 
igree Wheat after the variety was im- 
proved by judicious management, 
with the exception that this cut is 
more than one inch shorter than 
the original head. The pages of this 
book are too short to receive an illus- 
tration of the full length of the im- 
proved ears. 

This variety of wheat had one rad- 
ical defect, as a popular variety for 
cultivation, which is this: the chaff 
was very open and loose, so much so 
that the grain would shell readily, at 
harvest time, unless the crop were 
gathered before the kernels were fully 
ripe. Besides this, as the chaff was 
loose and open, the grain was much 
more liable to be infested with the 
wheat midge. 

Large numbers of American farmers 
procured small quantities of seed of 
European wheat-growers, with the 
expectation that they would be able 
to raise forty bushels of choice wheat 
per acre, where they had heretofore 
grown only ten to tv/enty bushels. 
But, in almost every instance, they 
were wonderfully disappointed, as the 
heads grew but a trifle longer and 
larger than our improved varieties. 



THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



93 



Most persons who received and cultivated tliis kind of 
wheat, being grievonsiy disappointed in the growth of 
ears and yield of grain, denounced the variety as a no- 
torious humbug. But the grand difficulty rested in their 
imperfect mode of cultivation. The soil where the 
originator of this variety cultivated his wheat was ex- 
ceedingly rich in those elements of fertility which are 
essential to the growth of large heads and plump kernels 
of wheat. But the ground where American farmers at- 
tempted to grow this European variety was only in 
a common state of fertility, and by no means rich enough 
to develop ears of such enormous size. Before heads of 
giant size can be produced, there must be an abundance 
of wheat-producing pabulum in the soil available by the 
growing plants. Then there will be no difficulty in 
producing a bountiful crop of excellent grain. 

I have had this Pedigree engraved for several specific 
reasons, one of which is to induce American farmers, if 
possible, to make an effi^rt to produce such a variety of 
wheat as this Improved Pedigree is represented to have 
been. When an experiment of this kind is ever made, 
care should be exercised to have every characteristic of 
a perfect variety of wheat, developed as completely as 
practicable. (See the Characteristics of a Perfect Wheat, 
on a preceding page.) 

Another idea is, do not go to England for wheat. 
Select the best heads of some improved American vari- 
ety ; and improve the seed, from year to year. Varie- 
ties of wheat brought from Europe to this country must 
first be acclimated ; and more likely than not, after the 
wheat has been thoroughly acclimatized, there will be 
defects in it, just as there was in this noted Pedigree 
"Wheat. But if the variety be improved on American 



94 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



soil, the crop will not fail, so long as the seed is selected 
with proper care from harvest to harvest. 

Red Chaff Bald Wheat. 

\n the Transactions of the 'New York State Agricnl- 
I ^ tnral Society for 1842, Rawson Harmon 

Avrites thus about this kind of wheat : 

" This variety was well adapted to the soil 
in the Genesee Yalley of Western 'New 
York. In 1803, Peter Sheffer harvested 
forty acres of this kind of wheat on the 
Genesee Flats, that produced sixty and a 
half bushels of grain per acre. The same 
season, this variety, sown on the oak open- 
ings in this vicinity, was nearly destroyed 
by the Hessian fly. Its long and well-filled 
heads, the white and beautiful berries, gave 
it the preference over other varieties for 
more than twenty years ; and some farmers 
in this vicinity [Western l^ew York] con- 
tinue its cultivation. The bran of the 
grain is thin ; and it yields flour of supe- 
rior quality. In 1833 I harvested sixty- 
seven bushels from one bushel of sowing, 
which grew on one acre and one-fourth 
of land." 

I have copied this paragraph for the 
purpose of showing what a profitable and 
excellent variety of grain this ''Bald 
Wheat " was, when the country was com- 
paratively new ; and before rust, the 
BaM Vheat. ^ idgc, aud the fly inj ured the growing grain . 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



95 



The White Genesee "Wheat. 

This variety, illustrated by the accompanying figure 
of a. head of wheat, represents what is sometimes called 
the Canada Flint Wheat, which is an excel- 
lent variety, possessing all the external char- 
acteristics of the best varieties of winter 
wheat. It is hardy, prolific, has a thin bran, 
yields a large percentage of fine flom', and 
resists the ravages of the midge much more 
eff*ectually than many other celebrated va- 
rieties. When the seed has been saved with 
care, from year to year, and sowed on a fair 
wheat soil, which is in an excellent state 
of fertility, this variety ripens as early as 
any kind that has been extensively intro- 
duced. 

This variety is almost identical with the 
White Flint described by Klippart, who says 
that "this [the White Flint] is one of the 
most valuable kinds in the is'orthern States. 
The heads are not long but well filled, with 
thu'ty to forty grains ; the kernel is white and 
flinty, large, and with thin bran. They are 
firmly attached to the chafi*, and do not shell 
out, except when very ripe. 1 he heads are 
rather droopina:, with but few awns, the straw fig. 15. 

J- ' White Gene- 

medium length, and very white and strong. see. 

The fiom* is very superior ; the perfect wheat weighs 
from sixty-three to sixty-seven pounds per bushel." This 
would be an excellent variety to select a few heads from, 
for producing an improved variety, as it possesses pro- 
lificacy, and is nearly midge proof. 



96 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



The Eed Blee-stem ^heat. 

This is an old and very popular varietv of wheat, 
which originated in Pennsylvania. It is one of the 
finest and most profitable varieties of 
red wheat. The growing grain with- 
stands the ravages of the wheat midge 
better than many varieties, but not so 
well as some others. The chaff fits rather 
close to the kernels, but not so tight as 
the chaff of some otiier varieties. The 
Eed Bhie-stem TTheat is one of the most 
prolific varieties that has ever been cul- 
tivated : and the young plants endure the 
cold of winter with less injury than many 
other kinds of wheat. J. H. Klippart 
says, in the Transactions of the Ohio 
Board of Agricultm-e, that this variety 
makes as good a quality of flour as does 
any red wheat : the grain ripens tlii'ee to 
six days later than the Mediterranean 
wheat ; but no variety repays good cul- 
tivation so well, or }delds so little when 
indifterently cultivated, as does this va- 
rietv. Manv of the more recent varie- 

FiG. 16. 

Eed blue-stem. tles of smootli. red wlicats were derived 
from this old standard variety, which has been cultivated 
in many counties in Ohio for more than fifty years. The 
regularity of the rows of grain and the tightness of the 
chaff to the kernels show this to be a very desirable va- 
riety to cultivate. With proper selection of seed, and 
superior cultivation, the yield and quality may be won- 
derfully improved. 




THE WHEAT CrXTTEIST. 



97 



The Bull TTheat, oe Old A\^hite Flixt. 

J. H. Edippart records tlie following suggestions 
of this varietY. He wiites : This fiint. Old TThite 
Flint, or Bull TVheat. appears to have had 
three distinct origins, so far as Oliirj is 
concerned, viz. : in Trnmbnll and other 
north-eastern counties it was introduced 
from Xew York State some fifteen years 
ago — there it ripens with the Mediter- 
ranean ; is not much subject to disease, 
and is considered a good variety. In Stark, 
Harrison, etc., it was introduced as much 
as thirty yeai-s ago from Pennsylvania, and 
is now almost literally ' run out'' But in 
Franklin and other more southern counties 
it was introduced from Kentucky, ripened 
about the 25th of July, and was in conse- 
quence soon abandoned entirely. Ten 
years ago Samuel Cole introduced it into 
Darke County, where it is doing well : at 
the same time it was introduced into Tus- 
carawas. This flint is of Spanish origin. 
The head is of medium length and well 
filled — straw white, clear and sti'ong at the 
root, by which it is prevented from lodging : spikelets 
very adhesive to the rachis, and kernels very adhesive to 
the glumes. It succeeds best on loamy soils, and is 
rather susceptible to injury frijrn frosts and insects. 
The berry is very hard from its silicious cuticle (hence 
its name), in consequence of which it is less injm^ed by 
fall rains, and will stand in the shock a long time Avith- 
out sprouting." 

5 




98 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



The Indiana, or Golden Stem Wheat. 



This 

possess 



variety is a white winter variety ; but does not 
the necessary characteristics of a perfect wheat. 
One of its defects is, the chaff is too loose, 
so much so that the wheat midge finds easy 
access to the kernels ; and the grain shells 
out readily when the crop is being har- 
vested. Another defect is, the straw does 
not usually grow sufficiently stiff to maintain 
an erect position till the time of perfect 
maturity. The cuticle of the grain is thin, 
and the percentage of fine fiour is larger 
than the yield of some other varieties of 
wheat. 



The Early May Wheat. 



This variety was once one of the finest 
kinds of . wheat that could be found in 
America ; and in some localities it is still 
cultivated with excellent satisfaction. But 
as I have not, of late, come in personal 
contact with the Early May, and as there 
are so many conflicting opinions about the 
value of this variety, I feel in doubt as 
to what I ought to record about it. I 
have no doubt, however, that with care- 
ful cultivation, this would prove an ex- 
cellent acquisition to the best varieties 
of the wheats now cultivated in this country. Who- 
ever has this variety, still pure, should make an extra 
effort to improve it. 



Fig. 18. 
Golden stem. 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



The Gexesee Whtte-Flin't Whi 

The illustration herewith given repre- 
sents the celebrated variety long known 
and cultivated as the Genesee White- 
Flint TTheat, which was a very hardy and 
prolific variety so long as the seed was 
kept distinct from other kinds of grain. 
But after it had been thi^ashed with other 
grain and allowed to hybridize with impure 
varieties, the White Fhnt character disap- 
peared. The original grain was of a supe- 
rior character, and yielded a large percent- 
age of flour. But after the introduction of 
thrashing-machines, the purity of this va- 
riety became wonderfully adulterated, so 
that there seemed to be but little resem- 
blance between the varieties raised in dif- 
ferent parts of the coimtry wliich were 
cultivated for the Genesee White-Flint 
Wheat. 

J. H. Klippart says of this variety : 
" Perhaps the fii'st of this variety intro- 
duced into Ohio was in Warren County, 
by Thomas Ireland, in 1842. From there 
it no doubt spread through the valleys of 
the Miami ; in many of which it forms the 
main crop of the white wheats. It is best 
adapted to high and gravelly lands, and 
rarely if ever succeeds on a bottom soil. 
In Franklin County it is regarded as a 
much surer crop than when first introduced 
eight years ago." 



100 



THE TTHEAT CULTOilST. 



The Alabaaia Taeiett. 

This TarietY is sometimes known better by the White 
May Wheat. Before this variety had been injured by 
injudicious cultm^-e and defective manage- 
ment, it was one of the most perfect varieties 
of white wheat ever cultivated. The ears 
and line white grain closely resemble the 
celebrated ^Tiite Fhnt Wheat. In .many 
instances, this variety did not seem to en- 
dure the cold of winter as well as many other 
varieties. Before the Alabama Wheat had 
been mingled with other varieties of seed, 
with which the grooving wheat was allowed 
to hybridize, a bushel of the grain would 
yield as large a percentage of superfine fiom* 
as any other known variety. But by per- 
functory management in saving the seed, this 
valuable grain, in many localities, has lost 
its identity. The Alabama was nearly 
midge-proof so long as the pmity of the 
variety was maintained. Li some localities, 
this variety, at the present writing — Xovem- 
ber 1S67 — ^is cultivated vrith eminent satis- 
faction. ETLppart says ••it ripens about the 
same time the MediteiTanean does, but is 
easily winter-killed, thits ^jetraviiig its south- 
em origin: yields eigl-t^en z-j t'venty bushels 
under ordinary circumstances : it comes highly recom- 
mended from Morgan Coimty. Its geitert.I appearance 
is very like that of the White Bl:i---:ci... -"it^ this dif^ 
ference, viz. : the head, when fully ripe, is a deeper yel- 
low than the Bltte-stem : the stem iust below the head is 



Fig. 20. 
Alabama wlieat, 



THE WHEAT CULTTIRIST. 



101 



a pale greenish-blue. There 
are from eight to twelve 
breasts on each side, with 
four grains in a breast." 

Black Six-eowed Aotdkiolo 
Wheat. 

The ear of wheat here 
shown represents a mongrel, 
or hybrid variety of wheat, 
as may be readily perceived 
by the rough appearance of 
the glumes, the irregularity 
of the rows of kernels, and 
the destitution of awns at 
certain parts of the head. 
This variety has not been 
introduced sufficiently to 
warrant a recommendation. 
I simply give it a place to 
show the difference between 
a pure and well-established 
variety and a mongrel. This 
Black Six-rowed Andriolo 
Wheat is the product of a bald and 
bearded variety, the kernels of one 
of which were impregnated with the 
pollen of the other variety. Such va- 
rieties should always be discarded for 
seed, as the yield will always be less 
satisfactory than when good seed of a 
pure variety is selected and sowed 
from year to year. 




Fig. 21.—Black Andriolo wheat. 



102 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 




Fig. 22.— Hairy Andriolo. 



Red, Hairy Andeiolo 
Wheat. 

I have given a sketch of 
this wheat, not for the 
purpose of recommend- 
ing this variety, but to 
suggest to farmers not to 
attempt to grow it be- 
cause the ears look so 
large, fau-, and beautiful. 
This variety is a fair 
wheat, prolific, and pos- 
sesses most of the charac- 
teristics of a superior va- 
riety of wheat. But the 
large awns and hairs with 
which the ears are cov- 
ered are a serious objec- 
tion to its general intro- 
duction. The variety 
came originally from 
Italy; but has not been 
introduced, except to a 
very limited extent. It 
is evidently a mongrel, or liybrid ; 
and before it can be cultivated with 
satisfactory results, the grain needs 
to be acclimatized by selecting a 
few of the best heads and cultivat- 
ing the grain on rich ground until a 
perfect American variety is brought 
out. This variety has prolificacy, 
for which reason, it would be a first- 



THE WHEAT CIJLTUEIST. 



103 



rate grain to experiment with, for the purpose of im- 
proving its other characteristics. 

The Kentucky Red ok Whig Wheat. 

This is an old variety, known in vari- 
ous localities by different names, among 
which are the Early Kipe Carolina, Ken- 
tucky Eed, and the "Whig Wheat. This 
kind of wheat was cultivated in several 
counties in Ohio, with eminent satisfaction, 
for a number of years. But, as the crop fell 
an easy prey to the wheat midge, this variety 
was discarded. I allude to this wheat for 
the purpose of teaching young farmers the 
transcendent importance of selecting those 
varieties of wheat for cultivation which 
are as nearly midge-proof as a wheat can 
be. Many farmers, by continuing to sow 
this variety, which had previously yielded 
fair crops, lost hundreds of dollars which 
they might have received without any 
more labor, if they had sowed some other 
variety of wheat. 

Klippart says, that in Kentucky this vari- 
ety is known as the " Early Ripe " wheat. 
The ears are of a great length, usually ; the 
kernels of a light color ; and sometimes the 
grain is shrunken. This variety has lost 
its identity in many localities, for which 
reason, it fails to yield a satisfactory crop. 
In some localities, liowever, the " Early 
Ripe " is still cultivated with the best of KeiSSky^-ed. 
satisfaction ; and few varieties excel it. 



104 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 




Fig. 24. — Four-rowed Andriolo. 



'he Fotje-eowed Andkiolo 
Wheat. 

The variety herewith 
represented is the Four- 
rowed Wliite Andriolo 
Yariet J, which was raised 
to some extent by the 
Hon. Isaac IN'ewton, Com- 
missioner of Agriculture, 
Washington. This is a 
beautiful ^^ariety, prolific, 
stands the winters tol- 
erably well, and ripens 
early. The long awns, or 
rough beards, are an ob- 
jection to it, as they are 
unpleasant to handle, and 
make so much chafi", 
which is a nuisance, 
when the straw is em- 
])loyed for feeding and 
littering sheep and horses. 
This variety has all the 
external characteristics of 
a perfect variety of grain ; 
and were it properly cul- 
tivated, no doubt this 
would be one of the best 
varieties ever raised in 
America. The kernels of 
this variety are very uni- 
form in appearance ; and 
the variety is prolihc. 



THE WHEAT CULTILRIST. 



105 



The Diehl Yaeiety. 



The illustration on this page is an exact representa- 
tion of the far-famed Diehl Wheat, which is familiar 
to almost every wheat-grower in the ITorth- 
ern and Western States. I know of no 
other variety of wheat, either spring grain 
or winter, that has been cultivated with 
more universal satisfaction than this wheat. 
It is a winter variety. This variety seems 
to come up as fully to the requirements of 
Avheat-growers as it is practicable to have 
wheat. The grain is*white and the crop 
ripens early in the season. It is hardy, 
prolific, and the plants endure the rigors 
of our northern winters quite as well as 
any other known variety. The ears are 
bald, or awnless, the kernels set very 
securely to the rachis, the chaff is close to 
the kernels, so that this variety may be 
truthfully denominated a "fly-proof" 
wheat. The grain does not shell out, 
when the crop is being harvested, as easily 
as the kernels of some other varieties. 
The straw is stiff; and thus far this vari- 
ety has been exempt from injury by the 
rust. 

" Colman's Eural World," published at 
Chicago, in a recent nmnber, has the fol- 
lowing remarks touching the Diehl wheat : The Sehi A?heat. 
" This is the second year since the introduction of the 
Diehl wheat into this country. Its yield last year was 
considered above the average of other kinds of wheat 

5* 



106 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



sown here, and tlie consequence was, it was much sought 
after to seed with last fall, and the whole crop was 
bought up at $3 per bushel, at that time being from 50 
to Y5 cents per bushel above the market price of other 
white wheat. In consequence of the high price asked 
it went into the hands of many, and has been sown on 
all the different soils of our country, from light sand 
to heavy clay. The growth of straw has been good on 
all, but it promises the best yield on the rich lands, and 
where sown early. Where sown late, and on the same 
day with the Treadwell, it was A^ery much injured by 
the midge, and the Treadwell was uninjured. 

" "We cannot say positively what its merits are when 
compared with the other white wheats. Many think there 
is nothing like it, while others are not ready to express 
their opinions. There has been but little of it thrashed 
yet. After it has been generally thrashed, it will as- 
sume its position. 

" To sum up — with our present knowledge of the 
Dielil wheat, if we had a good fallow, rich and clean, 
we would sow the Diehl wheat, and sow early. If the 
land was of moderate richness and to be sown late, we 
would sow Treadwell. We think the Dielil requires a 
dryer soil than the Treadwell. Persons wanting Diehl 
wheat for seed this year should not pay fancy prices for 
it, but should willingly pay for good, sound, clean seed 
sufficient above the market price of wheat to recompense 
for the labor of making it so." 

Mr. John J ohnston, the veteran farmer of Geneva, IST. 
Y., says in regard to the Diehl wheat : My Diehl 
wheat is pretty good. One field may yield about as 
well as last year's ; the other not. Cause : not manured 
for many years. The variety has degenerated on the 



THE WHEAT CULTTTEIST. 



107 



one field, but not 
on the other ! " 
Mr. J. adds : " If 
plenty of manure 
were applied, there 
would be less loss 
from midge. All 
that is needed to 
insure good crops 
is more and better 
manure. Dielil 
wheat is excellent 
for rich land, but 
not good for poor. 
This is not a popu- 
lar doctrine, but it 
is true." 

The head of 
wheat represented 
bj this illustration 
was sketched from 
a head of this 
variety raised in 
Colorado, and de- 
posited in the 
archives of the 
Agricultural De- 
partment at Wash- 
ington. There is 
nothing remark- 
able about this 
variety, except the 
uncouth appear- 




FiG. 26. — Egyptian club wheat. 



108 



THE WHEAT CULTUETST. 



ance of the ear. The variety is called the Seven- 
headed Egyptian Club Wheat. ]Mi\ Klippart states that 
" this variety is known nnder the names of Egyptian, 
Syrian, Smyrna, Many-spiked, Eeed, and Wild-goose 
Wheat. It derives its latter name from a story, which is 
current in the north, that four or five kernels, from which 
the American stock has proceeded, were found in the 
crop of a wild goose, which was shot on the west shore 
of Lake Ghamplain. It is called i?f?^(Z Wheat, fi'om the 
great strength of its straw, which serves to prevent its 
being prostrated in the field. It does not yield so much 
flour or meal as other kinds of wheat ; and the flom* is 
scarcely superior to that obtained from the finest barley. 
We find it described in some authorities as Mummy 
Wheat, or wheat three thousand years old. The 
following is a brief popular alleged history of it : It is 
said that some years ago a gentleman having occasion to 
unroll an Egyptian mummy, found enclosed with the 
body a few grains of wheat, which afterward, upon being 
sown witli the modern Egyptian wheat, was found to be 
entirely dissimilar. The former contained nearly a 
hundred stalks, ranging in length from nearly five to 
upward of six feet, the leaves broader than usual, and 
fully an average as to length. The grain was in two 
rows or triplets, and on some, twenty triplets on a side, 
or forty on the ear. The ear contained a few barbs or 
awns on the upper end, and was open and distant be- 
tween the grains. It flowered nearly a fortnight before 
any of the varieties sown at the same period. The 
modern Egyptian is dwarf, not more than four feet high, 
closely set and barbed in every part of the ear, and its 
general resemblance to its ancient progenitor is not 
greater than that of barley to wheat. Egyptian wheat, 



THE WHEAT CULTUfilST. 



109 



found in the tombs of tlie 18tli dynasty — i. e.^ from b. 
c. 1822 to B. c. 1476 — lias germinated when sown in 
Germany, and is frequently found in the tombs of Egypt. 
It has been groAvn by P. Poorman, in Stark County, O. 

" This is an indifferent variety of wheat. The straw 
grows to the height of about live feet, is thick and pithy ; 
the leaves are often ten inches long ; the head, or rather 
panicle, is about four inches long, and nearly two wide 
and deep, and when ripe is of a reddish brown. The 
head consists of from five to twelve small heads densely 
compacted ; the awns or beards are often four inches 
long, and of a very dark brown or blackish color. The 
lower part of the grain is inordinately swollen ; it is 
very starchy, but not hard or flinty." 

The Weeks Wheat. 

Perhaps very few other varieties of wheat have been 
cultivated with more general satisfaction than this 
variety. (In numerous instances, this wheat has erro- 
neously been bought and sold and advertised as the 
" Wichs " wheat.) But as I lived for many years within 
a few miles of the originator of this variety, at the time 
of his experiments with it, and am personally acquainted 
with him, I can correct any false impressions that have 
been promulgated concerning its identity, with the as- 
surance that my statements are correct. There has been 
great confusion among farmers in regard to the identity 
of the Weeks wheat. In some instances, the heads 
were bald, while in others they were bearded, similar 
to the head herewith illustrated. Although the head 
of wheat from which this engraving was made was said 
to be the genuine Weeks wheat, still I know, from what 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



Ill 



I have often seen on my own farm and in the wheat 
fields of many of my neighbors, that the heads of the 
genuine Weeks wheat are not, as a general rule, so 
jagged and irregular as this illustration represents the 
yariety to be. The heads of the true Weeks wheat, as I 
used to raise it, had four regular rows of kernels. In 
some instances, there were no beards, while other heads 
were covered with long awns. The originator of this 
variety communicated the following facts touching this 
variety of wheat, in response to my inquiries about its 
origin and other characteristics. He wrote under date 
of October 19, 1867, as follows : 

" In answer to 3^our inquiries, I would say that I found 
the head from which the Weeks wheat originated, in a 
crop of Mediterranean wheat. There were a few scat- 
tering heads of Hutchinson and Souls wheat mixed with 
the Mediterranean, among which this head grew. The 
product of the selected head Avas both bearded and bald 
wheat, nearly one- third being bald ; and it continued to 
grow bald heads for three or four years, though such 
heads were carefully picked out every year. The midge 
worked in the bald heads very bad, whilst the hearded 
was almost free from their ravages. I therefore rejected' 
the hald^ and grew the hearded. I think the wheat is a 
cross between the Souls wheat and the Hutchinson. 
" Respectfully yours, 

" J. M. Weeks. 
"King's Ferry, Cayuga Co., K Y." 

E. A. King, of King's Ferry, Cayuga Co., E". Y., 
whose farm lies on the eastern shore of Cayuga Lake, 
and who has cultivated the Weeks wheat for a few 
years past, writes thus to the " Cultivator and Country 



112 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



Gentleman " : " For many years the need of an early 
and productive variety of wheat, and one free from the 
' midge ' or ' weevil ' has been felt ; and in the TTeeks 
wheat the farmer has such a variety. It is a choice 
white wheatj making the very best of flom\ Millers in 
Ithaca and Auburn pay from two to four shillings more 
for it per bushel than for any other hind. They say they 
get more flour, and of a better quality, than from any 
other kind. It is from eight to twelve days earlier than 
any other kind wliich farmers have here, thus escajDing 
the Aveevil or midge. It has a good stiff straw, and 
thereby escapes the Hessian fly. It is very productive 
— twenty-five bushels not being a high average per acre, 
and I have known it to yield as high as forty-five bush- 
els per acre. It is no humbug, as scores of the best 
farmers here will testify ; and I actually believe that if 
this variety alone was sown in the United States, the 
crop would be doubled on the area over the present 
crop. It need not be sown before the 15th or 20th of 
September to do its best." 

Golden-straw Wheat. 

The straw of this variety is sliort and stifij, and is 
consequently not liable to lodge. It does best on rich 
sandy loams. The grain is not properly a red wheat ; 
but of nice amber color, somewhat resembling the 
old-fashioned flint wheats. In Holmes County, Ohio, 
it is rather of a yellowish cast. It ripens rather later 
than the Mediterranean. It yields about twenty bushels 
per acre ; and improves under ordinary culture, and is 
but little subject to injury by rust or fly. It is rapidly 
growing into favor ; and eventually may perhaps sup- 
plant the Mediterranean. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUKIST. 



113 



The Ked Andriolo 
Wheat, represented by 
the accompanying en- 
graving, is similar to 
the White Andriolo 
Wheat, shown on an- 
other page of this book. 
This is a hardy varie- 
ty, prolific, moderately 
early, and possesses 
most of the character- 
istics of a superior va- 
riety of winter wheat. 
The long, rough awns 
are an objection to its 
cultivation, when the 
straw is to be employed 
for feeding stock or 
littering their apart- 
ments. Domestic ani- 
mals dislike these 
harsh, tasteless, and in- 
nutritious beards, as 
they are ruinous to fine 
wool, liable to injure 
the eyes of animals, 
and when the chaff is employed 
for bedding for horses, these 
ugly, barbed awns are liable to 
find their way into the sheath of 
male horses, to their serious in- 
jury. Awns are of no advan- 
tage to wheat. 




Fig. 28.— Eed Andriolo. 



114: 



THE WHEAT CTLTUIilST. 



The Tappahat^ock Wheat. 

This excellent yarietv of winter wlieat has not been 
introduced to any considerable extent in the United 
States. Hon. Isaac Xewton, Coniniissioner of Agri- 
cultm-e at Wasliington, experimented Avitli tliis wlieat ; 
and tbe same season lie died, 1S67, he prononnced the 
Tappahannock the earliest and most promising of all 
the Tarieties of winter wheat with which he experi- 
mented on the government farm. Mr. Xewton states 
that this variety does not seem to be so prolific as some 
other kinds ; but the grain is of a fine quality, and it 
makes excellent fiour. He thought this variety is 
much less liable to disease and the ravages of the fly 
than some other varieties. Farmers in other States 
besides Tu'o'iuia, who have raised this kind of wheat, 
state that, as a general rule, the Tappahannock is ex- 
tremely hardy and prolific, when the seed has been 
saved with care, from year to year ; the yield of fine 
flour is large : the plants endure the winter extremely 
well ; and all things considered, the Tappahannock is 
an excellent variety of wheat. 



The AEediteeeaxeax TTheat. 

This vai'iety is said to have been introduced from 
Genoa, in 1819, by J. Gordon, of Wilmington, Dela- 
ware. It was cultivated for many years with eminent 
satisfaction, as the wheat midge injured the crop none 
to speak of In many instances the straw was not suffi- 
ciently stift' to maintain an erect position till harvest. 
As it was more expensive harvesting lodged wheat, and 
as the yield was diminished by the falliug down of the 



THE WHEAT CULTUIilST. 



115 



straw, and as the price per bushel was often twenty to 
thirty cents less in market than other wheat, this va- 
riety was almost discarded in many localities. 

At present we have the Red Mediterranean and the 
White, both of which are cultivated with eminent satis- 
faction, where the seed has not been allowed to mix and 
to degenerate by injudicious management. Both the 
white and the red varieties yield bountiful crops ; and 
resist the midge nearly as well as any other variety. 
The Mediterranean wheat matured ten to fifteen days 
before other varieties when first introduced. But, by 
slack management of the seed, the variety lost its early- 
matm-ing character. This wheat is known as a bearded 
and bald ; and as white and red grain. 

I have found so many diflerent varieties which pass 
for the Mediterranean, that it will be utterly useless to 
attempt to pen such a description of the Mediterranean 
wheat as will prove of any service or satisfaction to 
even a small number of the readers of this book. Mr. 
Klippart, in his " Wheat Plant," speaks very favorably 
of the Mediterranean wheat ; and my own experience 
is, that where the seed has not been allowed to degene- 
rate by slack cultivation, this variety is one of the 
most profitable kinds that American farmers can cul- 
tivate. 

When the Mediterranean Red variety was first intro- 
duced into the best wheat-growing regions of ]N"ew York, 
many farmers refused to employ this variety for seed, 
simply because the straw was so slender that it would 
lodge, and frequently be tangled into a complete snarl, 
before harvest-time, thus diminishing the yield of grain, 
and greatly augmenting the labor of harvesting the 
crop. 



116 



THE WHEAT CrLTUEIST. 



The Black-Sea Spring Wheat. 

This excellent variety of spring wheat was once one of 
the choicest kinds of spring grain that has ever been 
cnltivated in the United States. But slip-shod farm- 
ing soon brought the Black-Sea wheat into disfavor. 
Before it had been allowed to hybridize with other va- 
rieties, it was considered an earlier variety than the 
others ; and it succeeded comparatively well, if sowed 
when it would be too late for other kinds to mature. It 
has been sown as late as the 20th of J une in Eastern 
l^ew York, and produced bright straw and a plump 
berry. This has been much liked, because it may be 
sown so late as to escape the wheat midge, and yet fill. 
As the wheat midge does not rage so much now as for- 
merly, it is not so extensively cultivated. 

S. Kieffer, of Jefferson County, ^s". Y., writes that 
the Black Sea wheat is not so valuable to manufac- 
tm*e into fiour for exportation, because it is not so white 
and light, or soft to the touch of the finger, but makes 
good bread, of a rather yellowish color. It never has 
rusted or blasted with me, and I doubt if it has with 
anybody else when sown within the month of May. I 
have grown it upon interval land so rich that it lodged 
and lay fiat upon the ground during the time it was 
filling until it was harvested ; yet it was well filled, and 
yielded thirty-eight (38^) bushels per acre. 

If this variety could have been kept pure, and the 
seed improved from year to year, according to the di- 
rections laid down in this treatise, farmers would have 
had a variety of wheat that would now be a great na- 
tional blessing. It is a glaring reproach to American 
farmers, that they will allow choice varieties of wheat 



THE WHEAT CrLTUEIST. 



117 



to deteriorate and run out, simply by perfunctory man- 
agement. 

The Rio Grande. 

This is a choice variety of spring wheat ; but has not 
been introduced, except in a few localities. Wherever 
it has been cultivated for several successive seasons, 
with care, and the seed kept pure, the crops have given 
fair satisfaction. The straw is usually rather stiff, so 
that the growing grain is not prostrated by protracted 
storms. This variety has been grown quite extensively 
in some parts of Minnesota, and other Western States. 
Usually, farmers and millers have spoken well of the 
Rio Grande. I think that if the seed of this variety 
could be cultivated with the care alluded to under the 
head of Seed Wheat, the Rio Grande would be one of 
the choicest and most profitable varieties of spring 
wheat that has ever been cultivated in America. This 
wheat possesses all the characteristics of a perfect vari- 
ety of cereal grain. But in numerous instances, the 
crop has been allowed to hybridize with other grain, so 
that, in some instances, it has lost its identity. 

China Tea Wheat. 

This is a spring wheat. The chaff is white ; the 
heads are long and well tilled with plump kernels, when 
the soil is moderately fertile. The kernels are large, 
and rather far apart. It is a bearded variety ; and very 
prolific. On rich soil, the straw stands erect tolerably 
well. But some millers have complained of this variety 
that the bran is thick ; and that the grain does not yield 



lis 



THE ^HEAT CrLTTEIST. 



SO mncli flour per Inisliel as the grain of some other 
varieties. The China Tea has been cnltivated, in 
years past, quite extensively, in many parts of TTestern 
Xew Turk, with eminent satisfaction. In some of the 
middle counties of the State, where the seed has been 
allowed to hyln'idize. there has been not a little com- 
p)laint about the unsatisfactory results of the China Tea 
variety. In some other States, this variety has been 
cultivated to a limited extent ; and I have always found 
that slack farmers denounced it. while thorough-going 
ctiltivators of the soil speak well of the China Tea. 



The Fiee Speix'G TVheat. 

The Fife TTheat and the Canada Club TTheat ai-e said 
to be the same variety in certain sections of the country. 
But they are entirely distinct. They were both culti- 
vated in Central Xew York, to a limited extent, for sev- 
ral sticcessive years, when I resided in Tompkins Coimtj. 
The grain appears very much alike ; but the straw, 
when growing, is Cjuite unlike. I once grew both varie- 
ties on my farm : and I found that the Club wheat 
would mature a week earlier than the Fife. The straw 
of the Fife is short and stiff: and the variety is moder- 
ately prolific. The Fife wheat, with me. always resisted 
the midge satisfactorily ; and the grain always made 
excellent fiotir. 



SiLVEE Steaw TTheat. 

This is a variety of winter wheat full of encouraging 
promises to American farmers : but which has been cul- 
tivated only to a limitt-d extent. It possesses all the 



THE WHEAT CIJLTUKIST. 



119 



external characteristics of a perfect variety. The rows 
of grain are very regular ; the heads are large and well 
filled with plump kernels ; the grain is of a beautiful 
amber color; the straw is stiff, and has a fine silver 
lustre ; the growing crop is nearly weevil proof ; the 
straw is seldom affected with rust; the young plants 
endure the cold of winter, extremely well ; and it is 
one of the finest varieties of wheat that can be found 
in l^ew Jersey, where it is grown with eminent profit 
and satisfaction. 



Undesckibed Yakieties. 

'No doubt hundreds of my readers will wonder why 
I did not describe certain varieties which have only a 
local name, having been cultivated only in certain local- 
ities. I am aware that there are many, probably, excel- 
lent varieties of both winter and spring wheat, which 
I have never heard of. I have heard of, and have seen 
many varieties that I have made no allusion to in this 
book ; because I have not been able to learn anything 
really reliable in regard to their characteristics. Where 
I knew nothing of a certain kind of wheat, and was not 
able to obtain reliable information touching its excel- 
lence, I have thought best to pen nothing about it. 
There are many kinds of wheat in the Western States, 
of which I failed to secure an intelligible description ; 
therefore, I have omitted the names. 



120 



THE WHEAT CTILTURIST. 



CHAPTER II. 

SoiLj AND ITS Preparation for Wheat. 

" But if your care to wheat alone extend, 
Let Mala, with her sisters, first descend ; 
And the bright Gaossian diadem downward bend, 
Before von trust in earth the future hope ; 
Or, else expect ahstless, lazy crop." 

Detden's YrRGiL. 

The proper preparation and continued management 
of the soil from jear to year, lies at the very foundation 
of successful wheat culture. A farmer may sow the 
best and most prolific varieties the world ever knew, and 
fail to raise a satisfactory crop of wheat, if the soil is not 
just as it should be. 

In preparing the soil for the production of a crop of 
winter grain — wheat, rye, or winter barley — the aim 
should always be to keep the vegetable matter and 
the manurial portions as much on, or near the surface as 
is practicable. The grand object of preparing the soil 
in this way, is that the roots of the plants may spread out 
horizontally, instead of striking in a more vertical direc- 
tion. When they spread out horizontally, they form a 
kind of mat in the soil, a few inches deep, which rises 
and settles down bodily, when the soil freezes and thaws. 
Therefore the soil may freeze and thaw a great number 
of times, when the roots are matted together horizontally, 
without tlirowing the plants out of the soil. Whereas, 
when the vegetable matter is mingled v/ith a good depth 



THE WHEAT CIJLTUEIST, 



121 



of soil, so that the roots miTst necessarily strike deep 
before they can reach -the necessary sustenance, they 
will be lifted out and broken by the frost after freezing 
only a few times. 

l^^ow, if we could invert only a few inches in depth 
of the soil — say three or four inches— and then pulver- 
ize the soil below this thin stratum of surface soil, thus 
keeping the largest proportion of humus and available 
fertilizers near the surface of the earth, there is no 
doubt but that we should see a very remarkable differ- 
ence in more abundant crops of grain ; and at the same 
time, it would be of a better quality, as its growth would 
not be stinted by the frosts of winter. 

To show that this theory of cultivation is philosophi- 
cal and practically correct, I will simply refer to the 
practice formerly in vogue, of sowing wheat on newly- 
cleared land, after the surface had been simply har- 
rowed — or without ploughing any part of the ground. 
Winter-killing of wheat, when put in thus, was seldom 
complained of. As there was but little depth to the 
soil, all the roots spread out horizontally ; and it was 
almost impossible for the young plants to be injured by 
the freezing and thawing of the surface of the field. 

On this subject the editor of the Baltimore " Sun " 
writes : " The importance to the farmer of understand- 
ing the habits and peculiar characteristics of the plants he 
cultivates, as well as the nature and quality of his soil, 
is frequently illustrated. Let us take the wheat plant 
for instance, and we find, by almost common consent, it 
is best provided for in a shallow seed-bed. Yery deep 
ploughing is thought to be not only unnecessary, but 
absolately injurious. The young plants seem to need a 
firm under-stratum, not far from the surface, to imbed 

6 



122 



THE WHEAT CUJ.TUEIfiT. 



their roots in ; and with this advantage, they withstand 
the ' throwing out ' produced by alternate thawings and 
freezings, better than when the soil has been recently 
stirred to a very considerable depth. 

" 1^0 one at this time of day can overlook or be igno- 
rant of the great advantages to the soil generally by 
deep ploughing. 

^'Ist. It opens a much larger amount of soil to the 
range of roots, giving much more liberal pasturage than 
they could otherwise get. 

" 2d. It increases very largely the supply of nutri- 
ment, by allowing the access of air, and by the process 
of weathering, acting upon the mineral elements of the 
soil. 

" 3d. It preserves an equal quantity of moisture in 
the soil. We seldom have a rain so great as to produce 
an unhealthy stagnation of water about the roots of 
plants set in a soil seven or eight inches deep ; and, on 
the contrary, we seldom have a drouth of so long con- 
tinuance as to extract all the moisture to that depth. 

" These and other known advantages from deep 
ploughing, we might dwell upon ; and apart from the 
well-known fact above alluded to, it would hardly be 
supposed that any crop, of whatever character, would 
be exempted from the good influences of the practice. 

We must make a proper distinction, however, be- 
tween a natural subsoil, indurated and rendered im- 
pervious to the action of the air by centuries of rest — 
its original hardness and impenetrability aggravated by 
a long course of continuous treading in ploughing the 
surface soil — and that firm, mellow body of earth which 
is produced by deep cultivation. 

" It is this firm yet generous subsoil which forms so 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



123 



valuable a matrix for the roots of tlie wheat plant, and 
enables them to resist the loosening effects of alternate 
frosts and thaws during winter. This important distinc- 
tion, it will be observed, allows nothing to be detracted 
from the argument in favor of deep ploughing. It is 
only when the previous working has been indeed most 
thorough, that the wheat reaps a due advantage from 
this shallow ploughing. The under-stratum, though 
somewhat compacted in comparison with the loose sur- 
face soil, is so enlivened by the former breaking up, that 
the tender rootlets take firm hold and keep their place. 

" The advantage of this comparative firmness of the 
substratum is apparent in the practice, now so common, 
of seeding corn land to wheat, without any ploughing 
beyond what has been given to the corn. The action 
of the tines of the wheat-drill, or any such scratching 
of the surface, as will give the seed a light covering, is 
found to answer all necessary purposes even on tolerably 
tenacious clays. It is insisted, indeed, after much ex- 
perience, that this is the most successful practice for 
corn-land seeding." 

Let this be the keynote then, to successful wheat cul- 
ture : to keep the best soil, or a thin, mellow stratum 
of rich soil, at the surface. Then make the subsoil as 
deep and porous by pulverization as practicable, by the 
use of the subsoil plough. 

How Fkeezing- akd Thawing op the Soil affects 
Guowma Wheat. 

Practical farmers understand very well, how freezing 
and thawing of the surface of the soil affects the wheat 
plant. Doubtless every observing farmer who reads 



124 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



these pages, will recollect of having seen the surface of 
very wet and light ground lifted, so that the ice and 
a Httle earth would resemble a honeycomb. Every 
wheat-grower should have a correct understanding of 
the effect of freezing and thawing of the soil on the 
wheat plants, as the injury to the wheat plant arising 
from the freezing and thawing of the soil, is usually the 
most serious obstacle that farmers meet with in our 
wheat-growing regions. By the alternate freezing and 
thawing of the surface of the soil, the stools of wheat 
are lifted and separated from their hold upon the soil. 
The deep roots which penetrate below the reach of shal- 
low frosts are broken off, and the earth is more or less 
loosened from the others. Here we perceive the dis- 
advantage of depositing the seed too deep. The roots 
originating fronl the seed, being far below the surface 
of the ground, when the plant is lifted by the expansion 
of the soil, the stem will be likely to be separated some- 
where between the surface of the ground and the roots. 
The plants then soon die. When the roots strike down- 
ward, their hold in the soil is loosened, when the frost 
lifts the soil ; and as the wheat plants do not settle back 
to their original position when the ground thaws, the 
roots are soon worked upward, until they are raised 
almost clear of the soil, as if they had been pulled up 
by hand. Every practical w^heat-grower is familiar 
with all these disadvantages in raising winter wheat. 
"With spring grain, none of these things occur. 

When the soil freezes, it is greatly expanded ; and the 
expansion is all upward, because the unfrozen earth 
below, will not yield to the frozen stratum ; and there is 
no vacant space to be filled by the lateral enlargement. 
For this reason, the surface of the soil is often elevated 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



125 



two, three, or more inches higher than it stands when 
the ground is not frozen. 

If the position of shallow-rooted trees, wdiere the ground 
freezes deeply, be compared with horizontal marks on a 
building that the frost does not lift, it will often be seen 
that they stand from one to two inches higher, when 
the soil is thus frozen, than when free from frost. As 
the roots of such trees lie nearly in a horizontal position, 
they rise and settle back with the lifting and settling of 
the soil. Thus it is with sod ground. The roots of the 
grass form such a tangled mat near the surface of the 
ground, that the entire layer of turf settles back in a 
body, keeping the roots in their true position. 

I have in mind an instance which will illustrate the 
great expansion of the soil, even when beneath a heavy 
weight. In the basement of my workshop, there were 
two sticks of timber resting with their ends on the sills, 
and the middle of each stick was supported by posts set 
in the ground, where frost could not reach them. In 
very cold weather, the entire building would be raised 
by the freezing of the earth beneath the foundation, so 
that a plank, an inch and a half thick, could be put 
under the timbers, on the top of the posts. 

With a perfect understanding of the foregoing sugges- 
tions, a farmer will be well prepared to do something 
to prevent in a great degree, or entirely, any injury to 
the wheat-plant from freezing and thawing of the soil. 
In order to prevent injury from this source, two things 
are essential. The first is, thorough drainage, where the 
soil is at all inclined to be too wet. Dry soils are af- 
fected but little by freezing. But when a soil is satu- 
rated with water, it often heaves several inches above 
its usual height. This process so disturbs the roots of 



Fig. 20. 



THE WHEAT CTTLTURIST. 



127 



wheat, that they have no more hold on the soil than 
if just transplanted. Hence, they are apt soon to die. 

The next consideration is shallow seeding, and cul- 
tivating the soil so as to keep the mould, or the richest 
part of the soil, at the surface. 

I will endeavor to make this point more intelligible 
by an explanation of the accompanying illustration, 
which represents a young wheat-plant which has sprung 
from a kernel of wheat that was planted about six inches 
deep. The seminal or primary roots that have sprung 
from the kernel take such a firm hold of the soil, that 
when the surface is lifted the stem will be severed, as 
shown, at some point between the two systems of roots. 
Unless winter wheat is put in very early in autumn, the 
coronal, or secondary, or upper set of roots will not 
attain one-]ialf the size herewith represented. I have 
shown a bulb just below the surface of the ground, much 
larger than it really grows, for the purpose of illustrat- 
ing the principle on which the young wheat-plants 
grow. The upper set of roots seldom appear as large 
as they are here represented, until the plants have begun 
to grow luxuriantly the next spring after the seed is put 
in. We can perceive, at once, how easily the frost 
would heave out the growing plant, if there were only 
a few small roots issuing from the bulb, to hold it in 
the ground. 

When seed wheat is ploughed in deep, if we examine 
the plants just before winter, we shall find that there 
are roots issuing from the kernel, as shown by the 
illustration, and none — or very few — at the bulb. After 
a period of freezing and thawing of the wheat field, in 
some wet place, let the stems be examined, and they will 
be found severed, as represented by the preceding cut. 



i 



12S 



THE WHEAT CrLTURIST. 



'Now, the great practical question again recurs — to 
which I have previously alluded — what can the hus- 
bandman do to avoid injury from freezing and thawing 
of the soil ? I again repeat the answer which was 
hinted at under the Habit of the Wheat Plant, p. 49, 
that the seed must be planted shallow. If that kernel 
of grain shown in the last illustration, Fig. 29, had 
been deposited near the lower end of the bulb, all the 
seminal or primary roots, and all the coronal or second- 
ary roots would be so close together that they would 
tend to form a mat of earth, like a sod, which would 
rise and fall with, the expansion and contraction of the 
sm'face of the ground when it freezes and thaws. By 
this means, the injury arising from the heaving of the 
soil will be avoided, provided the best, the mellowest, 
and richest soil be kept at the surface of the ground. 

The foregoing explanation of the management of 
wheat is applicable to winter grain — to rye as well as 
to growing wheat. In the culture of spring grain, we 
have no such difficulties to contend Avith. Let this sec- 
tion be read in connection with deep and shallow seed- 
ing on another page. I am fully satisfied, after thu'ty 
years' observation on this subject, that farmers must 
make themselves familiar with the principles of growth 
and of cultivation herein laid down, before they will be 
able to raise winter wheat with satisfactory success. 

Best Quality or Soil fok Wheat. 

Many farmers have inquu-ed, with much solicitude, 
why wheat will not grow on any soil that is fertile and 
mellow ? — or, why a soil will not produce a good crop 
of wheat that produces fair crops of everything else? 



THE TV-HEAT CULTUEIST. 



129 



But the correct answer is very obvious and brief. If a 
soil is destitute of wheat-producing material, it cannot 
produce a bountiful crop of that kind of grain. There 
are many soils that will produce fair crops of Indian 
corn, rye, barley, and oats, Avhicli will not yield a re- 
remunerating crop of wheat. And why '( Simply be- 
cause the roots of the wheat plant cannot find, in that 
soil, the right kind of material that is necessary to form 
the kernels. In one soil, the minute roots find an 
abundance of material, which they may take up, for the 
formation and perfect development of the kernels ; 
while in another soil, the roots may send out their nu- 
merous little hungry mouths into every cubic inch of 
the soil, in search of material to produce the grain, and 
not find it. This is the great difiiculty with a soil that 
will not produce wheat. And, until such materials are 
added to the soil, it may be cultivated and sowed in vain. 

All farmers — or chemists — who know anything, prac- 
tically, about raising good wheat, will admit that the 
best soil for raising good wheat contains a good propor- 
tion of clay. Wheat requu-es a firm soil. Therefore, a 
sandy soil is not a good one for wheat ; neither is a 
mucky soil much better ; because they are both defi- 
cient in those elements of fertility that are necessary to 
form the kernels, and also in that firmness which is 
so essential in a good soil for wheat. Yet I have seen 
fair crops of wheat produced on a sandy soil. 

Our aluminous, heavy, slippery clay soils are by no 
means the best soils for the production of either winter 
or spring wheat ; although they will yield good crops 
of wheat when well drained, and thoroughly pulverized 
and manured. Our country abounds in soils of a mixed 
character, which will produce a remunerating crop of 

6* 



130 



THE WHEAT CULTUHIST. 



wheat once in five or six years, wliile they cannot be 
set down as good wheat soils; and they cannot be very 
mnch improved for growing wheat, nnless a vast amount 
of clay were thoroughly mingled with the soil. 

Hea^^^, slippery clay soils abound in wheat-producing 
material. Therefore, such soils will not be exhausted 
of their fertility as soon as those will where there is 
but a small proportion of clay, or no clay at all. 

On some soils, where sand predominates, wheat 
would not grow heavy enough to pay the expense of 
harvestino^ it. And the same is true of soils where allu- 
Yion constitutes the large projDortion of the soil. A 
sandy soil will furnish silica enough to form a good, 
stiif straw, while a mucky soil mil produce a slender 
and soft straw, which will fall down before the grain 
has matured. 

The best soil for wheat is a soil in which the i3re- 
dominating characteristics are clay and loam, having 
neither too much of one nor too little of the other. 
The lighter loam soils, and such alluvions as have been 
brought from clayey localities, will often produce boun- 
tiful crops of excellent wheat ; and sometimes a mucky 
soil will yield a fair crop of this kind of grain. But 
their fertility for wheat will soon be exhausted. Cal- 
careous clays, gravelly clays, aluminous clays, as well 
as many soils that are a mixture of all these just named, 
with good management — cultivating, manuring, and 
draining ^ — will, almost always, yield fair crops of 
wheat. 

E.. L. Allen, in the American Farmer's Book, says : 
" Wheat is partial to a well-prepared clay or a heavy 
loam ; and this is improved when it contains, either nat- 
urally or artificially, a large proportion of lime. Many 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



131 



liglit, and all marly and calcareons soils, if in proper 
condition, will give a good yield of wheat." 

In D. P. Gardner's Farmer's Dictionary, tlie author 
says : "Wheat thrives best on heavy soils." 

The author of the Practical Farmer says : " Wheat 
succeeds best on stout loams." 

In Stevens's Book of the Farm — an English work — 
the writer says : " Unless soil possesses a certain degree 
of firmness, that is, contains some clay, it is not con- 
sidered adapted to the growth of wheat. At least, it is 
considered more profitable to sow barley upon it." 
(Read about Improving Soils for Wheat, in chapter on 
Soils, in the second volume of my Young Farmer's 
Manual.) 

A practical farmer of Central 'New York wrote to one 
of the agricultural papers thus: ''A firm, fertile, and 
dry soil is particularly adapted to wheat, and such soils 
as have been under-drained are more productive, and 
require much less manure. Wheat, whether winter or 
spring, does best in soils in which there is a good por- 
tion of clay. When the soil is composed for the most 
part of muck, as occurs in many places in New York, 
Canada, and some of the Western States, it requires 
much preparation before it will produce well ; and such 
soils can only be made to yield heavy crops of wheat, 
with profit, when clay, in some form, can be supplied." 

Wheat on" Clay Loam. 

The author penned the following article for the "In- 
dependent," soon after he assumed the editorial charge 
of the agricultural department of that paper : 

Wheat, especially winter grain, requires a firm soil, 



132 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



having in it a preponderance of clay. For this reason, 
our clayey loams are found to be better adapted to 
winter wheat than any other soil. A strong loam is 
better for winter wheat than a clay soil, although where 
clay is so abundant as to give a soil the character of a 
rich stiff clay, it will produce excellent wheat for a long 
succession of years. Still, when clay and sand are com- 
mingled in the right proportion to form a good loam, 
there is no other kind of soil that is better adapted to 
the production of winter wheat, that will make the 
whitest and best fine fiour. A sandy soil is too porous 
for wheat, especially winter wheat. Spring wheat will 
succeed much better on sandy soil than winter. Mucky 
soils are quite ojectionable for winter wlieat, because 
they are too light. The freezing in Avinter expands them 
much more than compact loams, or clays, especially 
when they are not well drained. This great expansion 
disturbs the roots to sucli an extent that but few plants 
can survive the great injury from freezing and thawing. 
Clay gives firmness and solidity to a soil. Sand ren- 
ders it sufiiciently porous to drain off the superabun- 
dant moisture, wliich is the means of the great expansion 
when the soil freezes ; and at the same time it renders 
the soil sufiiciently porous for the roots to spread readily. 

Another indispensable characteristic of a good soil 
for wheat is dryness. I^o soil, whatever may be its com- 
ponent parts, or however fertile it may be, can produce 
a large yield of winter wheat when there is an excess 
of water in it. What I wish to be understood by an 
excess of water is, more than the soil will retain by capil- 
lary attraction, or absorption. If a good clay soil, too 
wet for wheat, were rendered dry by under-drains three 
feet deep and not more than ten to twelve feet apart, 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



133 



its capacity for absorbing the surplus water would be 
greatly increased ; and tlie wheat growing on it would 
be very little injured by freezing and thawing ; and it 
would suffer less for want of moisture in a dry time. 

Another important feature of a good wheat soil is 
a bountiful supply of nitrogenous matter and silica. 
When a soil is nearly destitute of these ingredients, the 
ears of wheat will always be short and light, and the 
kernels of grain quite small. In fertile loams, there is 
usually a pretty good supply of both substances. "Where 
nitrogenous matter exists only in limited abundance, it 
may be supplied in good barn-yard manure, made by 
animals Avhich subsist largely on coarse grain and oil- 
meal. Such manure will always produce great heads 
and large, plump kernels of grain. Silica is essential to 
produce a healthy, bright, and stiff straw. This may be 
su2:)plied by spreading on a few hundred bushels of sand 
per acre, after the wheat is put in, and sowing eight to 
ten bushels of unleached ashes per acre, the next spring, 
or even during a dry time in winter, when ashes would 
not be washed away by high water. There are thou- 
sands of acres of inferior wheat soil in our country that 
might be made to yield remunerating crops of this kind 
of grain, by following the directions just given. 

The Culture of Wheat Chemically Consideked. 

At one of the meetings of the 'New York State Ag- 
ricultural Society, Hon. D. Lee made the following re- 
marks touching the culture of wheat, which, I think, 
will be read with no little interest. He said : 

" By the aid of a little practical science, good wheat 
may be grown profitably in any county in the State. 



134 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



Tlie wheat plant lias been raised in a great yarietj 
of artificial soils, where each ingredient was carefully 
weighed, both before and after the plant was taken from 
the earth. By careful analysis, what the soil had lost, 
and what the plant had gained, was susceptible of dem- 
onstration. A very large portion of the elements of all 
cultivated plants comes from the atmosphere. The pre- 
cise amount will depend alike on tlie composition of the 
soil and the nature of the particular plant upon which 
the experiment was made. 

" I regard it as a fact of great practical importance, 
that wood ashes, even leached ashes, so abundant in the 
southern tier of counties of the State of ]^ew York, 
contain all the earthy elements of this invaluable bread- 
bearing plant. 

" Our primitive forests have been for centuries draw 
ing the above earthy constituents of wheat from the 
soil. And instead of carefully preserving this indispen- 
sable raio material of good wheaten bread, thousands 
of bushels of leached ashes have been thrown away ! 
Being but slowly decomposed by the vital action of 
plants, ashes are an enduring fertilizer, when compared 
with stable manure. Mixed with quicklime, their good 
efibcts are more speedily obtained. Lime will render 
alumina, either in the soil or in leached ashes, soluble in 
water, so that it can enter the minute pores of roots. 
Clay in the soil is always combined with a large por- 
tion of silica, and before it has been exhausted by con- 
tinuous cropping it holds in combination considerable 
potash and soda. Lime, by combining with alumina, 
the basis of clay, liberates these alkahes and silica, 
which, uniting chemically, form soluble silicates of pot- 
ash and soda. These also enter into the circulating 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



135 



nonrisliment of plants, and are decomposed in tlie stems 
of grasses and cereals. The silica goes to make 
vegetable bone, to keep tlie plant npriglit, ^vdiile the 
potash and soda go back to the earth to dissolve as 
before." 

Oeganio Elements of Wheat. 

I come now to speak of the organic elements of the 
wheat plant, which form ninety-six or seven per cent, 
of its snbstance. "Water and its constituents, oxygen 
and hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, are the four ele- 
mentary ingredients of all cultivated plants, beside their 
minerals. As there is no lack of water or of its ele- 
ments, oxygen and hydrogen, our attention will be con- 
fined to obtaining a full supply of carbon and nitrogen. 
These are indispensable, and fortunately nature has pro- 
vided an amount of carbon and nitrogen in the air, if 
not in the soil, more than equal to all the wants of veg- 
etation. A large portion of the fertilizing elements of 
vegetable mould in a rich soil is carbon, and a small por- 
tion is nitrogen ; both of which are usually combined 
with other substances. These important elements are 
often nearly exhausted in fields which have been un- 
wisely cultivated ; and I have paid much attention to 
the subject of cheap and practicable renovation. 

By the aid of clover and buckwheat dressed with 
gypsnm, ashes, lime, or manure, and ploughed in, when in 
blossom, much can be done in the way of augmenting 
the rich ves-etable mould so desirable to a certain desfree 
in all soils. Straw, corn-stalks, leaves of forest trees, 
and swamp mnck made into compost with lime and 
ashes, are of great value. Charcoal, well pulverized 



136 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



and saturated with urine, I regard as the cheapest 
and most useful fertilizer that can be applied to a 
poor soil, for the production of wheat or almost any 
other crop. 

The earths contained in charcoal, as the analysis of 
its ash demonstrates, are identical with the earths found 
in the wheat plant. Coal contains a very large portion 
of carbon, and will imbibe from the atmosphere a large 
quantity of nitrogen in the form of ammonia and its 
carbonates. Unlike stable manure, the salts of lime, 
potash, soda, and magnesia, it will not waste by prema- 
ture solution nor by evaporation. On the contrary, it 
is of incalculable value to mix with the liquid and solid 
excretions of all animals, to absorb and fix in a tangible 
condition those volatile fertilizing elements which are 
so prone to escape beyond our reach. 

When it is recollected that without nitrogen in some 
form, it is utterly im]30ssible to grow one kernel of good 
wheat, and that a pint of human urine, or four quarts 
of that of the cow, or one quart of that of the horse 
fed on grain, contain nitrogen enough to supply sixty 
pounds of wheat, we may begin to understand some- 
thing of the money A^alue of this animal product. Ad- 
ditions cheaply made to even worn-out soils — supplying 
them with the comparatively small amount of ingre- 
dients essential to the production of grain, and without 
which wheat cannot be grown — would richly repay the 
farmer, and vastly enhance the wealth of the country. 
Analysis shows that a very small portion of the nutri- 
ment of wheat comes from the soil ; but that portion 
must be restored in some form, as lime or otherwise, if 
we expect to make the earth yield profitable returns for 
our labor. 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



How THE Kernels of Wheat are Formed. 

In a few days after the blossoms of the wheat plant 
have fallen, the tender kernels appear enveloped in the 
chaff; and the material that forms the flour of the grain 
is in a liquid state, having been brought up from the 
fertile soil through the medium of the roots, stems, and 
leaves of the growing plants. At this period, the ker- 
nels are much larger and more plump than they will be 
after the grain is fully matured. If the kernels be 
crushed at this period in the growth of the wheat, a 
thick milky liquid will exude. After a few days, this 
"fluid material changes to a plastic state. 

The grain is then said to be in the " dough state." 
While the substance that forms the kernel is in a liquid 
condition, the grain is spoken of as being in the " milk 
state." All the exquisitely line material that enters into 
the composition of the grain, is brought up to the ear 
in particles inconceivably small, having been picked up 
by the organs of the growing plant, and conveyed in 
the fluids of the stem and leaves to the kernels. It is 
exceedingly interesting to consider the untold number 
of living mouths attached to the numerous roots that 
pervade the entire soil, securing only a choice morsel 
here and there to be carried up to the head for the pro- 
duction of seed ; and it is a most interesting fact to 
contemplate, that the roots of the wheat plant are so 
exceeding dainty, that they will reject entirely large 
quantities of the choicest kind of plant food, if it is not 
in exactly the right condition for making a choice arti- 
cle of wheaten milk. The consideration that all the 
choice wheat of commerce is the product of a milky 
substance which is formed of a material in the soil that 



138 



THE WHEAT CELTTTvIST. 



is less abiindaHt tlian the lionev wliicli the bees may 
gather from the opening tloTvers. teaches the cultivator 
of the soil the transcendent importance of fertilizing, 
pnlverizing. and teasing the land hj all the mechanical 
means in his power to bring it into that pecnliar state of 
prodnctireness. which will snpplv the greatest amount 
of available material for the formation of wlieat milk. 

Domestic goats that roam about the streets of om* 
populous cities, are ever ready to devour every sort of 
garbage, even to broAvn wrapping-paper : and their di- 
gestive organs are so powerful that milk is formed by 
these animals out of the roughest and poorest qualities 
of food. But the functions of the gro^nng wheat plant 
are so delicate, that other plants which are stronger and 
more hardy than the wheat plant, mtist prepare pabulum 
for the rocits C'f this plant to feed upon. For this pur- 
pose there is no other plant like clover for transforming 
the rough material in the soil into available plant-food, 
stich as the organs of the wlieat plant will appropriate 
to the prodnetion uf wheat ;nrilk.'" The hardy roots 
of clover will decompose and digest, so to speak, only 
a rery small quantity of earthy matter which will form a 
wheaten milk, after the ground has been ploughed, and 
the clover routs have decayed. Yet. if the fine pabu- 
lum is in the soil, and if the land be prepared properly 
by tliorougli pulverization, the roots of the wheat plants 
will find the little atoms which are adapted to the p^e- 
culiar reqifirements of those organs that prodtice the 
seeds. 

The great practical point, therefore, for wheat-grow- 
ers to Consider is. fattening the soil with alumina, phos- 
phorus, silica, and other fertilizing substances, which 
will afibrd an aljundant supply of the right kind of pab- 



THE WHEAT CULTIJRIST. 



139 



iilnm for producing " wlieaten milk," without which a 
bountiful crop of grain cannot be realized. 

Alumina, being the base of all clay soils, furnishes 
just what is required to produce large heads and plump 
kernels of wheat. Although phosphorus, or phosphatic 
material is the great manure for a turnip crop, it is em- 
inently essential for wheat, if it can be applied to the 
soil, say one year or more before the seed wheat is put 
in. Silica must be furnished in liberal abundance, or 
the straw of wheat will not possess sufficient stiffness 
to maintain an erect position until the grain is har- 
vested. 

Fattening the Soil eoe Wheat. 

After a wet soil has been thoroughly underdrained, 
so that there are no apprehensions that the young 
plants will be lifted out of the ground by freezing and 
thawing ; after the surface soil has been renovated with 
clover and kept in an excellent state of fertility by a 
judicious system of rotation of crops for several suc- 
cessive seasons; after the ground has been ploughed, 
reploughed, and ploughed again, and again, and again, 
and then harrowed, scarified, teased with the cultivator, 
and fretted with the roller, and vexed with the clod- 
crusher ; and after every noxious weed has been ex- 
terminated, root and branch, and their leaves, stems, and 
radicles have been changed into a fertile mould, the 
hopes of the ambitious .husbandman will not be realized 
in beholding a bountiful crop of the full wheat in the 
ear, unless he has fattened the soil. In this lies the 
grand secret of raising wheat. Yet very few even of 
our best farmers understand that this is the chief re- 



140 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



quirement of the soil, after everything else to appear- 
ance has been done which is really essential. 

Farmers often congratulate themselves, when they 
deposit the seed in a mellow seed-bed, that if any of 
their neighbors are so fortunate as to have a bountiful 
crop of wheat, they, most assuredly, will not fail to 
reap an abundant harvest. But they do fail, simply 
because the soil has not been fattened. A field often 
looks very mellow, at seedtime, the young plants attain 
a fair size before winter, and the growth of straw is 
luxuriant and heavy ; but at harvest, the heads of grain 
are exceedingly short and the kernels small, because the 
ground was not properly fattened with those elements 
of fertility which are required to swell out the kernels like 
grain just removed from the steep- vat. The experience 
of every practical farmer will accord with these sugges- 
tions. We often see wheat, when it is cradled, as high 
as the laborers' heads ; and the sheaves are very large, 
and numerous over the entire field. But the ears yield 
very little grain, because the soil has not been fattened. 

Culture of Wheat ojst Pkaieie Soils. 

Most farmers think that the prairie soil in which the 
plant food has been accumulating for untold ages, is all 
right for the production of a bountiful crop of wheat. 
Tillage, they think, is the chief desideratum on such 
soils. Thorough tillage is all that is required for a few 
years ; but after a few crops hjave been removed, the 
yield of grain diminishes, for the simple reason that the 
soil has not been fattened with a direct reference to 
producing a crop of wheat. The sources of fertility 
must be husbanded — even in the rich prairie soils of tlie 



* 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 141 

great "West — in order to be able to raise bountiful crops 
of fair wheat. Straw is not wliat farmers desire. There 
is an inexhaustible supply of material for making a 
heavy burden of straiv; but the material for swelling 
out large and plump kernels of fine wheat, is to be found 
only in limited quantities. 

Those farmers who have attempted to grow wheat for 
several successive years on the prairies, experience the 
very difficulties that I have alluded to. This fact 
proves, most conclusively, that thorough culture is emi- 
nently essential to a bountiful crop of wheat ; and it 
shows, also, that even the fertile prairie soils must be 
fattened or the wheat crop will be light. 

The question then arises, How may such a task be 
performed ? What to do and how to do it comes in, at 
this juncture, with wonderful pertinence. Well, what 
do we desire to do? Why, simply to maintain a high 
degree of fertility in the soil, so as to produce a bounti- 
ful yield of grain. Straw is not the object. A heavy 
dressing of straw applied to the soil only augments the 
crop of straw, which is, in some respects, more of a 
nuisance than an advantage. If all the grain be re- 
moved from the farm, and none of the refuse of the 
kernels be returned in the form of manure to fatten the 
soil, I reiterate what I have so often expressed, that the 
heads of grain will be short, and the kernels few and 
small. 

It will not subserve the grand purpose under consid- 
eration, to remove the wheat and return the straw to 
the land, as many of the proprietors of the prairie farms 
have been accustomed to do. It is absolutely essential 
to adopt a judicious system of rotation of crops in con- 
nection with a system of mixed husbandry, in order to 



142 



THE WHEAT CIJLTUEIST. 



produce bountiful crops of wheat. I^eat cattle, sheep, 
or swine must be raised in connection with wheat. 
And large crops of wheat cannot be grown where we 
see half-starved stock, as the manure made by lean ani- 
mals, that are required to subsist on straw and hay only, 
will swell out the kernels of grain but little more than 
if the straw and hay were applied directly to the soil. 
JN'othing will be added to straw and hay during its 
passage through stock into the manure heap and event- 
ually to the field. The grand object in feeding grain to 
domestic animals, is to secure a richer manure than 
can be made of straw and hay. 



Gang Ploughs akd Cultivators. 

In many wheat-growing sections of the country, gang 
ploughs are employed for preparing the ground for a crop 
of winter wheat. In other localities, " Ide's Wheel Cul- 
tivator," which is represented by the acccompanying 
illustration, is considered one of the most economical. 




Fig. 80.— Ides Wheel Cultivator. 

convenient, and useful imj^lements for a farmer. This 
style is manufactured by Messrs. Tracy & Greenwood, 
ISTewark, Wayne Co., N. Y., in the midst of a famous 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



143 



wheat-growing region, where thousands of this kind of 
two-horse cultivator are employed instead of a plough. 
The teeth of this cultivator are made of steel, with the 
lower ends spread out so as to form a broad, flat edge, in 
such a form as to be self-sharpening. The excentrics gauge 
the depth at which the teeth are to enter the ground. 
By means of levers, the teeth can be elevated six inches 
above the surface of the ground, in a few seconds ; or 
they can be adjusted to run at any desired depth, from 
one inch to six inches. It is an excellent implement for 
putting wheat ground in order ; and there are numerous 
other instances where this cultivator may be used with 
eminent satisfaction and efficiency. 

The wheels make it run very steadily, even on rough 
land. This style of cultivators is employed to a large 
extent in Central New York and in Canada, for culti- 
vating summer fallows ; and they save an immense 
amount of labor. In ten seconds the frame and all the 
teeth can be elevated several inches above the surface 
of the ground, so that the implement can be transported 
conveniently from place to place, while resting on the 
wheels. The teeth are strong, and with decent usage, 
such a cultivator will last a long time, and perform an 
untold amount of service. It is a very unusual occur- 
rence to see such a cultivator clogged with sods and 
stubble. 



About Summek Fallows. 

The time has been when summer fallows were very 
much in vogue ; and most of our best farmers thought, 
that, in order to raise a good crop of winter wheat, the 
land must be summer fallowed and ploughed, not less 



144 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



than three or four times ; and, sometimes, I have known 
farmers to plough summer fallows five times before the 
1st of September. And those farmers that were most 
accustomed to summer-fallow their fields for a crop of 
wheat, cherished the idea that every ploughing increased 
the crop of grain sufiiciently to remunerate for the labor 
performed. 

Where land is infested with noxious weeds, or is filled 
with the seed of pernicious plants, it may be advisable 
to summer-fallow. But I think the better way is to 
cultivate a crop of Indian corn, instead of summer-fal- 
lowing the ground. If the field be overrun with elder 
bushes, Canada thistles, dock, daisies, or weeds of this 
character, apply a heavy dressing of manure, late in the 
spring, and grow a crop of Indian corn. By ploughing 
the ground late in the spring, the corn will get the start 
of the weeds, and maintain the ascendency, during the 
growing season, with but little hand labor. Read about 
Summer Fallows in the second volume of my Young 
Farmer's Manual. 

Alden's Quack Eake. 
The illustration herewith given, represents an imple- 
ment constructed with reference to the wants of farm- 
ers in localities where quack grass, or couch grass, has 
taken possession of the soil. This implement was in- 
vented by Alden & Co., Auburn, N". Y., in a region of 
country where this pernicious grass abounds to a great 
extent. 

The teeth are made of iron, about three-eighths of an 
inch thick and eight inches long, each one having a nut 
on the upper end. The wood should be of the firmest 
kind of hard-wood timber, about five feet long and two 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



U5 



bj three inches square. The implement is guided by a 
pair of thills which are nsed to guide Alden's Horse 
Hoe, as shown in this illustration. 

The manner of using this rake is as follows : After 
the grass sod has decayed, use the rake as a harrow is 
employed. About every three or four rods across the 
field, stop the horse, draw the rake back, and thus clear 
the teeth of the numerous roots which have been gath- 
ered by them in their passage through the soil. Let the 
ground be raked over and over, until every quack root 




Fig. 31 .— Alden\s Quack-Grass P.ake. 



has been collected and dropped in a row on the surface 
of the ground. (See a cut and description of quack 
grass, and another quack rake, in my second volume of 
Young Farmer's Manual.) 

Vv^HEAT After Speixg Crops. 
A farmer of Orleans County, X. Y., wrote to the 
" Cultivator " thus : " There appears to be great need of 
doing something to induce farmers generally to sow less 



146 



THE WHEAT CULTUEI8T. 



wheat after spring crops. 'Not but what good crops are 
sometimes grown in that way ; but because the course 
pursued by a large portion of wheat-growers, makes it 
necessary to make a good summer-fallow, in order to be 
at all sure of raising a good crop of wheat — say of from 
25 to 30 bushels to the acre. This necessity is very 
strongly shown by the large amount of poor wheat now 
on the ground, and that has been harvested during the 
last two or three years. Probably three-fourths of this 
wheat was sown after spring crops ; and the principal 
part on land that, if well summer-fallowed, or sown on 
a good clover lea, would have given a good crop. But, 
by being put in rather hurriedly and late, as it almost 
always 'has to be, when sown after spring crops, and, as 
is more especially the case now, when labor is scarce and 
high, wheat does not generally get a sufficiently strong 
and vigorous start in the fall, to enable it to withstand 
all of the vicissitudes of a bad winter and spring, and 
bring it forward sufficiently early to escape the midge 
and rust. Not but good crops of wheat can be grown 
after spring crops, and be made very profitable, if sown 
on land sufficiently dry and rich ; but because the prin- 
cipal part of the land thus sown is lacking in one or 
both of these important requisites. Consequently, while 
I do not wish to stop all farmers from sowing wheat 
after spring crops, for there is some very good wheat 
grown in this way, I would only have it sown where the 
land is sure to produce good crops ; and I would be very 
glad to see all of our wheat land put in a condition to 
produce heavy crops without summer-fallowing. But 
we have to deal with circumstances as they actually 
exist, not as we would have them. 

Now, the real practical point for the farmer to con- 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



147 



sider, and that should control his decisions in regard to 
what crops to raise, is, that wheat has a good many ene- 
mies and adverse circumstances to overcome, to gener- 
ally produce good crops ; and these can only be over- 
come and guarded against by a good strong growth in the 
fall ; and that the principal part of our wheat lands are 
not in a condition to give wheat such a start when sown 
after spring crops, though a good summer fallow, or a 
clean one, or two-year old clover lea, would give a 
heavy crop. And though it may seem like lost time to 
keep land in an unproductive state, while making a 
summer fallow, yet there are many reasons why a heavy 
crop on a summer fallow is better and more profitable 
than a light crop, or partial failures, after spring crops. 
Prominent among these is the fact that, in sowing after 
spring crops, the land has to be prepared twice in the 
same season, seed found for both the spring and fall 
crops, and the ground harvested over twice, while both 
crops may not be as valuable as one heavy crop of wheat, 
that may be grown on a summer fallow in the same 
time. Another advantage is, that a summer fallow 
gives a good chance to clean land that is foul. There are 
many pests to grain crops, like wire grass {Poa com- 
pressa) quack grass {Triticum rej)ens)^ and Canada 
thistles {Cirsium ar verose)^ that seem to grow all the 
better for the cultivation usually given when wheat is 
sown after spring crops ; but which the thorough culti- 
vation in making a good summer fallow, in the usually 
hot and dry months of July and August, will be very 
likely to subdue — at least to a sufficient extent to pre- 
vent their injuring the succeeding crop of wheat." If 
land is at all disposed to be wet, summer fallowing will 
not improve its productiveness. 



148 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



Summer Fallowing for Wheat in Old Yirginia. 

J. W. HofF, M.D., Wirt Court House, Ya., writes: 
Wheat is sowed on fallow ground, and after corn crops. 
The latter is put in with the old shovel-plough, and the 
former generally with the harrow. The varieties raised 
are the red chaff, the white wheat, and the Mediterra- 
nean. The Mediterranean is considered to be the surest 
crop ; but the yield is not so great as, and the flour is 
inferior to, white wheat and red chaff. Guano is not 
used, nor any other manures, save, now and then, a few 
wagon-loads of barn-yard manure to the acre ; so that it 
is hard to tell what our lands would do if properly ma- 
nured and fertilized. Under the present mode of cul- 
tivation, the average yield per acre, of clean wheat, is 
about 8 bushels ; although some land will bring from 
20 to 30 bushels per acre ; and I believe that the greater 
portion of our tillable land would, if properly fertilized 
and cultivated, bring, upon an average, 20 bushels per 
acre. The rust damages the wheat in this section of the 
coimtry more or less every year. In 1850 it caused 
almost an entire failure of the wheat crops in all North- 
western Yirginia. Early wheat suffers less from rust 
than late wheat. To avoid the rust, farmers should sow 
their wheat in the early part of September, when the 
season is favorable. Of the varieties of wheat mentioned, 
the Mediterranean is less liable to take the rust. Whe- 
ther this is owing to any peculiarity in the growth of 
the wheat, its nature, or whether it be from its ear- 
lier growth and maturity, is not yet decided ; but it is 
generally believed to be owing to its earlier maturity." 

A farmer in New York wrote against the practice of 
summer-fallowing, and stated that land should be ploughed 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



149 



but once for a crop of winter wheat ; to which T. L. 
Meinikheim, Surry County, Ya., replied, in the " Cul- 
tivator," thus : 

" In the summer of 1856, I had a ten-acre lot, which 
was completely overrun with sorrel and wire grass. 
The soil, a loose sand. I wished to seed to wheat in 
autumn, but was told that the land was so full of acids, 
that unless I limed it, I would get no wheat. Being un- 
able to procure lime for less than ten cents per bushel, 
and then be obliged to go fifteen miles for it, I concluded 
to try to exjpel^ instead of correcting the acids. When a 
boy, I had heard an old Long Island farmer, w4ien speak- 
ing of a drought, remark, that ' when the land becomes 
thoroughly dried out, it becomes sweetened.' On the 
strength of that, I started my plough, ploughing, harrow- 
ing, and reploughing from June until October. I was 
told I was ' killing ' my land ; but as land is cheap here, I 
thought it ' wouldn't matter ; ' at all events, it would kill 
the grass too. One acre of the field I ploughed but twice ; 
the other nine acres were ploughed ^'y^ times, and har- 
rowed ten times. In October I manured the whole field 
with barn-yard manure, thirty cartloads per acre, ploughed 
it down, and seeded to wheat and timothy, and har 
rowed until the field had the appearance of a garden 
seed-bed ; the one acre included. 

" E'ow for the result. The nine acres yielded ten 
bushels per acre of fine plump wheat, sold at $1.Y0 per 
bushel, and netting me $4.25 per acre, besides the in- 
creased facility of cultivation. I can now have it ploughed 
at $1 per acre, when before it was hard work at $2 per 
acre. The one acre ploughed but twice, yielded three 
bushels of poor wheat, worth but $1 per bushel, costing 
me |2.73 per bushel. Over the nine acres there was 



150 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



quite a ' tolerable catch ' of timothy ; over the one acre 
it never came np sufficiently to be visible. Instead of 
the soil ' drying out,' it actually became more moist 
after each ploughing." 

Remakks. — The reader must recollect that the soil 
alluded to in the foregoing paragraph was a very light, 
sandy soil, and in a poor state of fertility. By proper 
cultivation, with a dressing of rich barn-yard manure and 
red clover, the yield of wheat could be increased two- 
fold, with less labor than was required to produce such 
a light crop as the writer has reported. 

The Object of Summer Fallows. 

J. J. Thomas, associate editor of the " Cultivator 
and Country Gentleman," writes thus in relation to 
summer fallows : "Of late years we see but few sum- 
mer fallows — they seem to have ' gone out of fashion ' 
Avith the wheat crop ; still they have their uses, and we 
will give a brief statement of the same. 

" The object of summer fallowing is threefold — to 
clean, to deepen, and to mellow the soil. 

" 1. Clean culture is desirable; because weeds detract 
from the perfection of the cultivated crops grown at 
the same time on the same soil. The useless plants 
take up the elements which would otherwise be taken 
up by the useful — a trite statement, but one too little 
heeded by the farmer. Hence the summer fallow is 
employed to free the soil of weeds — (a weed, it should 
be remembered, is ' any plant out of place ') — by the 
destruction of their growth and of their seeds which 
may be contained in the soil. A true fallow is hare of 
all vegetable growth — it rests from the production of 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



151 



plants of any kind. This character should always be 
given them as far as possible. The ploughing should be 
performed early — the sod carefully inverted — if sandy, 
turning flat — if clayey, lap furrows — and doing the 
work as regards moisture, when it will be most effective. 
Rolling will be beneficial on most soils — after this, the 
harrow thoroughly employed, and again the wheel-cul- 
tivator or gang-plough, so as to destroy the weeds which 
may appear, as well as to excite the germination of 
those which lie dormant in the soil, tliat they also may 
be destroyed. 

" 2. Deep culture is bcDcficial because it enlarges the 
capacity of the soil to supply nourishment to plants. 
A deep, free soil will allow the fine rootlets of growing 
crops to extend through it at pleasure ; and such a soil 
is filled with their roots in a manner surprising to every 
one on a first examination. ITumerous healthy roots 
insure a vigorous growth of that part of the plant above 
ground — such as is never observed on a hard and shal 
low soil. We believe deep ploughing has never failed 
to benefit well-drained soils (not naturally too porous 
and light already), unless the subsoil was of a very pe- 
culiar character. In such cases, deepening will prove 
beneficial if gradually performed — an inch or two may be 
brought to the surface at each ploughing without injury. 

^' 3. Fine culture — the thorough pulverization of the 
soil — is also necessary to its full productiveness. The 
ground should be open to the infiuences of air and 
moisture — should be free to the shooting of the most 
minute rootlets of the growing crop. The ameliorating 
effects of fallowing are in part due to the thorough dis- 
integration of the soil by mechanical working and long 
exposm^e to atmospheric influences. Little addition of 



152 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



fertilizing elements may be made, bnt those lying inert, 
concealed in tlie debris of rocks, or waiting admixtm^e 
to excite into action, are reduced or enlivened, and thus 
add to the power of the soil. A mellow soil attracts, 
as well as takes up, more moisture than a hard one. It 
is thus more likely to be in a state fitted for receiving 
benefit from the air, from its own ever-working forces, 
and from the mechanical stirring and manipulation it 
receives. 

" Thorough Gultiire^ lastly, is the only profitable way 
of managing a summer fallow, or any part of the farm. 
To plough carelessly, with half-turned furrows and fre- 
quent balks ; to leave the field for weeks to grow up 
to grass and weeds ; to plough but four or six inches 
deep where one owns good soil much farther down, is 
some distance from the right way — from the true uses 
of the summer fallow." 



Advantages of Summer Fallowing. 

On tliis subject, " Colman's Rural World " says : 
" It is well known that ploughing benefits land. 
This is especially the case with clay land, which is 
apt to have sufiered from treatment, of which wet 
ploughing is a noted example. The sun and frost have 
an ameliorating infiuence. But the infiuence is confined 
mainly to the surface. Hence, frequent ploughing, in 
its course, exposes all the soil; and even the subsoil, 
which has never seen the light, can then with great bene- 
fit be brought up. That is the time to convert this raw 
clay soil or any under-soil, into mellow, useful ground. 

" Land can be fallowed and lie idle one year with 
lyrofit. The soil is so thoroughly improved, that in this 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



153 



respect alone it pays. The weeds are exterminated, 
whicli is another point scarcely second in importance, 
and in some farms is of the first importance. It gives 
a chance for deeper tillage^ preparing the heretofore un- 
appropriated soil, which serves as so much addition, or 
manure, to the tillable ground. Further, fallowing the 
soil prepares it for a succession of crops without manure, 
equal to the benefit of a considerable quantity of ma- 
nure without this preparation^ Besides, it gives a most 
excellent chance to dispose of manure. The rawest 
manure can be used in such a case to the best advan- 
tage, the soil acting upon the manure, and the manure 
upon the soil, by fermentation and mutual chemical 
effect. Lime can also be used with profit ; so can salt. 
In the fallow is the farmer's great advantage, when his 
farm ' is run out ' and has become weedy, as it general- 
ly will be after many years of cultivation. The labor, 
though it occupies time, is easy. Land requires rest 
once in a Mdiile to recruit its energies ; and stirring the 
soil is one of the most effective means of doing it, if done 
during the rains and heat of a whole season." 



Summer Fallowing an Exhausting System. 

Summer fallowing is an exhausting system of cultiva- 
tion. The entire soil is occupied more or less with roots 
of some kinds of plants, which, when the ground is ex- 
posed to the influences of a burning sun and summer 
showers, in connection with repeated ploughings and har- 
rowing, reduces everything that rain and sunshine can de- 
compose, to nourishment for plants. The soil that is 
being summer-fallowed does not dry out as soon as if there 
were a crop on it. If a strip a few rods wide have a 

7* 



154 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



crop growing on it, and another be summer-fallowed, the 
latter will be quite moist in hot weather, while the for- 
mer feels dr}^ to the touch. Consequently, the moisture, 
heat, and frequent stirring greatly facilitate the de- 
composition of such portions as contain mineral sub- 
stances that enter largely into the composition of grain 
or grass. By this means, plant-food accumulates much 
faster than if the soil were shaded by a growing crop. 
Soda, lime, magnesia, potash, and silica, which are essen- 
tial to produce a good crop of wheat, are rendered avail- 
able to plants in greater abundance by summer fallow- 
ino". We know this is so from the fact that a summer 
fallow always produces a larger crop of grain. This is 
the result of summer fallowing for a few successive 
years. But, after three or four years have passed by, 
there will be a reaction. Summer fallowing will fail in 
its efficacy. This fact teaches us, that the fertility of 
the soil cannot be maintained long by naked fallows. 
It is better for all soils to be shaded. Their fertility can 
be maintained longer and at less expense by growing 
some kind of crops which shall be worked into manure, 
than by cultivating a naked fallow. See second volume 
of my Young Farmer's Manual. 



Winter Fallowing fok Wheat. 

A practical wheat-grower wrote to the " Country 
Gentleman," that in America the climate is particu- 
larly well adapted for the making of good winter 
fallows. In fact, winter fallows may be made more 
serviceable than summer ones are in England ; for, by 
commencing as soon as the crop is off, there are three 
months of better weather for killing weeds and sunning 



THE WHEAT CTJLTIJIilST. 



155 



the soil than any in that country. Of late years, snm- 
mer fallows have been nearly discontinued in England, 
rye and vetches being grown as a crop to be eaten on 
the land by sheep, on the heavy clays, and turnips or 
other roots on all friable farms. Formerly, the fallows 
were worked chiefly in June, July, and August. But 
here, they can be attended to better after a grain crop 
is off, in August, September, and October ; and if left 
at the latter part of the last-mentioned month, so that 
it is impossible for any water to lie soaking it, there will 
be a splendid seed-bed in the spring, equal to any of 
the beds so carefully prepared by the wealthy gentle- 
men's gardeners in Europe. The farmer having plenty 
of stock, can haul the dung where it is required for 
producing a crop of roots ; and thus, with such a long 
period in the early part of fall and latter part of sum- 
mer to prepare for everything, liis ground will be far 
ahead of the Englishman ; because, the latter cannot 
harvest his grain till nearly two months later than the 
American ; and consequently, is unable so effectuall}^ 
to clean it, more especially as the sun is much weaker 
there than here. Again, the frost, here, pulverizes much 
more effectually than there. Yet, there are hundreds 
of acres of Mdnter fallowing there, to one here. They 
have an average of ten dollars per acre per annum, rent, 
to pay, which Americans know nothing of. 

By adopting the system of preparing the soil for a 
crop of wheat during autumn and winter, the grain 
might always be put in quite early, leaving ample op- 
portunity for cultivating roots. 

Generally, the weather is very showery for some 
weeks after the breaking up of winter, so that plough- 
ing and harrowing are much delayed in consequence of 



156 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



there being too much moisture to Lave the land work 
well. It may be fine and do admirably for a day or 
two, when a wet day prevents going on with the job ; 
and a second day is lost, while the soil is drying. A 
great deal of delay might be avoided by preparing in 
the autumn, and attending to the watercourses, if it is 
low land, so that no water lies upon the soil ; when it 
will be found, after this winter fallowing, that oats, peas, 
or any spring grain, will do much better drilled in at 
once, the first day the land is dry, than if put in on 
ground which is hurriedly cultivated, leaving the stones 
end stumps to be in the way at harvest, or treading and 
packing down the soil to its great injury. Winter fal- 
lowing eff'eGtually and generally carried out, where the 
soil is compact and heavy, would regenerate agriculture. 
'No business succeeds without forecast, and no class use 
less forethought than the farmer. Suppose a store- 
keeper only paid attention to half his customers, and at 
seasons of the year almost shut up shop, would he be 
more unwise than the farmer who loses the whole of 
the fall, and does not prepare his land for a crop of 
spring grain ? 

A great deal of good judgment should be exercised 
about winter-fallowing vevy light soils, which never bake 
in hot weather. When there is a large percentage of 
alumina and lime in a soil, so that a furrow-slice rolls 
over more like a huge slab of putty than the dirt of a 
fertile soil, when the land is being ploughed, the fertil- 
ity of the soil can be wonderfully improved by winter 
fallo^\dng. Read about Fall Ploughing in my second 
volume of Young Fai'mer's Manual. Light soils are 
sometimes injured more by winter fallowing than they 
are benefited. But, whatever may be the character of 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



157 



the soil — whether light or heavy — water should never be 
allowed to stand, from day to day, on any portion, as 
standing water drowns the soil, and impairs its produc- 
tiveness far more than most people are accustomed to 
suppose. 

Deep Ploughing foe Wheat. 

In a late number of the American Farmer, Kochester, 
Y., the editor penned the following excellent sugges- 
tions in regard to deep ploughing for wheat, which coin- 
cide with my own views very well, except that the 
point with reference to keeping the best soil on the sur- 
face, is not made as clear as it should have been. Let 
the soil be pulverized as deep as practicable ; but let the 
mould — the best soil — be retained at the surface. The 
writer says : " The imjDortance to the farmer of under- 
standing the habits and peculiar characteristics of the 
plants he cultivates, as well as the nature and quality of 
his soil, is frequently illustrated. Let us take the wheat 
plant for instance, and we find, by almost common con- 
sent, it is best provided for in a shallow seed-bed. 
Yery deep ploughing is thought to be not only unneces- 
sary, but absolutely injurious. The young plant seems 
to need a firm under-stratum not far from the surface to 
imbed its roots in, and with this advantage they withstand 
the ' throwing out ' produced by alternate thawings and 
freezings, better than when the soil has been recently 
stirred to a very considerable depth. 

" 'No one at this time of day can overlook, or be ignor- 
ant of the great advantages to the soil generally, of deep 
ploughing. 1st. It opens a much larger amount of soil 
to the range of roots, giving much more liberal pastur- 
age than they could otlierwise get. 



158 



THE WHEAT CTTLTUHIST. 



" 2d. It increases very largely tlie supply of nutriment, 
by allowing tlie access of air, and by the process of 
weathering, acting npon the mineral elements of the 
soil. 

3d. It preserves an eqnal qnantit}^ of moisture in the 
soil. We seldom have a rain so great as to produce an 
unhealthy stagnation of water about the roots of plants 
set in a soil seven or eight inches deep, and, on the con- 
trary, we seldom have a drought of so long continuance 
as to extract all the moisture to that depth. 

These, and other known advantages from deep 
ploughing, we might dwell upon ; aiul apart from the well- 
known fact above alluded to, it would hardly be supposed 
that any crop, of whatever character, would be exempt- 
ed from the good inliaences of the practice. 

" We must make a proper distinction, however, be- 
tween a natural subsoil, indurated and rendered imperv- 
ious to the action of the air by centuries of rest — its orig- 
inal hardness and impenetrability aggravated by a long 
course of continuous treading, in ploughing the surface 
soil — and that firm, mellow body of earth, which is pro- 
duced by deep cultivation. 

" It is this firm, yet generous subsoil, which forms so 
valuable a matrix for the roots of the wheat plant, and 
enables them to resist the loosening efifects of alternate 
frosts and thaws during winter. This important dis- 
tinction, it will be observed, allows nothing to be 
detracted from the argument in favor of deep ploughing. 
It is only when the previous working has been, indeed, 
most thorough, that the wheat reaps a due advantage 
from the shallow ploughing. The understratum, though 
somewhat compacted in comparison with the loose sur- 
face soil, is so enlivened by the former breaking up, 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



159 



tliat the tender rootlets take firm hold and keep their 
place. 

The advantage of this comparative firmness of the 
substratum is apparent in the practice, now so common, 
of seeding corn land to wheat, without any ploughing 
beyond what has been given to the corn. The action of 
the tines of the wheat drill, or any such scratching of the 
surface as will give the seeds a slight covering, is found 
to answer all necessary purposes even on tolerably tena- 
cious clays. It is insisted, indeed, after much expe- 
rience, that tills is the most successful practice for corn- 
land seeding." 

Deep and Shallow Ploughing for Winter Wheat. 

On this subject, a writer in the "Cultivator and 
Country Gentleman " thus speaks of deep and shallow 
ploughing for wheat. He says : 

" I have heard some farmers argue that winter wheat 
requires a deep, mellow soil ; and to prove their theory, 
they would adduce instances in which the roots of 
wheat plants have been followed downward several feet 
deep. I have my mind on an instance where a well- 
digger traced the roots of a wheat plant over four feet 
into the earth. There appeared to have been in former 
years, in that place, a large hole or excavation, which 
had been filled up with surface soil, and had never be- 
come very compact ; and the wheat struck its roots 
downward almost as far as the stems grew upward. 

The theory of ploughing deep for winter wheat 
would be a good one, if we did not have the frosts of 
winter to contend with. The roots of the wheat plant 
are not elastic, like India-rubber. If they were, winter 



160 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



wheat w^ould not be very much injured by the freezing 
and thawing of the soil. 

Every intelligent farmer knows that when the soil 
freezes it is expanded ; and as the expansion must 
nearly all be uj)ward^ plants are sometimes lifted from 
one to two inches, i. the surface of the upper soil is 
from one to two inches further above the subsoil than 
it is when it is not frozen. Of course, this expansion 
lifts the plants with it, and if the roots have struck 
downward farther than three or four inches, they must 
be severed between the frozen and unfrozen soil. But 
in case most of the roots have shot out in nearly a hori- 
zontal direction, the plants and roots will all rise and 
settle back bodily, as the soil freezes and thaws, and but 
very few of the roots will be broken off. 

'* !Now, when the soil is ploughed deep for winter 
wheat, the roots must necessarily strike deep downward 
in order to obtain sufficient nourishment, imless the 
entire soil is filled with vegetable matter and manurial 
substances for nourishing the young plants. But when 
the large proportion of vegetable matter and manure 
are near the surface, the roots all spread out nearly in a 
horizontal direction, forming a kind of mat or tender 
sod, which all rises in a body when the earth freezes, 
without severing any of the roots, except those few that 
have struck downward beyond the super-soil." 

Importance of Subsoiling. 

The hard, impervious stratum beneath the fertile 
mould needs to be thoroughly pulverized, so that the 
roots of all kinds of cultivated plants may strike deep 
and feed on the vast stores of mineral pabulum that 



THE WHEAT CULTTIRIST. 



161 



have been locked up for unknown ages. Almost all of 
our cultivable fields could be rendered vastly more pro- 
ductive bj a thorough subsoiling. The deeper the soil 
the more productive it is likelv to be, whatever may be 
the crop, except where the subsoil is already so porous 
and light that the roots of plants find little or no difii- 
culty in striking as far dov*^nward as the tops extend 
upward. Almost all our wheat fields, when the soil 
rests on an imper^-ious and calcareous substratum, should 
be subsoiled until a mellow seed-bed is prepared, six- 
teen or eighteen inches in depth. Subsoiling should 
always be performed with a suitable plough, and not 
with an implement that was made expressly for plough- 
ing the surface soil. Some kinds of soil \vil\ be well- 
nigh ruined if turned upside down. Others will not 
be injured by deep trench ploughing. Every farmer or 
gardener should understand the character of his soils 
before he ploughs them. 

A correspondent of the " Germantown Telegraph 
makes some observations on subsoiling worthy of con- 
sideration : " TVe can readily see that the effect of sub- 
soil ploughing and trenching will vary with the char- 
acter of the subsoil ; if the latter is hard and compact 
it will probably arrest the downward passage of the 
water containing the valuable portions of the surface 
soil, which upon being again brought to the surface will 
of com-se enrich the surface soil ; but if, on the other 
hand, the subsoil is light and loose and of a texture not 
calculated to retain the saline constituents brought from 
above, they will pass through it, and when it is turned 
up it may for a time decrease the crops — for the only 
benefit gained seems to be that of deepening the surface 
soil, which even of itself is an important one. This 



162 



THE WHEAT CrLTURIST. 



may in a great measure account for the varied success 
which always attends subsoil ploughing, and a more 
careful attention to the difference may be the means of 
preventing much disappointment." 




Fig. 82.- Gilbert's Subsoil Plough. 



The accompanying illustration represents an improve- 
ment in ploughs, which is employed, with satisfactory 
results, in preparing the land for wheat, where the soil 
is of such a character as to require the subsoil to be 
kept beneath the thin layer of fertile mould on the sur- 
face of the ground. This plough has been introduced 
by the inventor, P. M. Gilbert, Kewanee, Illinois, in 
some of the wheat-growing sections of the United States ; 
and farmers on our lake slopes, when the surface soil is 
thin, will find that it will be greatly to their ad van-, 
tage to use such a plough, rather than to turn all their 
mould below the subsoil. 

It will be perceived that this plough has a subsoil 
attachment, which can be adjusted to run any desired 
depth in the bottom of the furrow made by the main 
plough. 

In my second volume of the Young Farmer's Man- 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



163 



iial is an illustration of tlie usual style of subsoil 
ploughs, accompanied with suitable remarks about sub- 
soiling different kinds of land. Consequently, my notes 
in this place are brief, on the subject of ploughing. 

Remedy for the Lodging of Grain. 

It has been assumed that the stiffness of the straw 
of cereal grain and the roughness and serrated edges 
of the leaves of all cereal plants, are due to the presence 
of the silica in the formation of the various parts of 
the plants just alluded to ; and it has been shown by 
chemical analysis that the straw and leaves of plants 
that are rich in silica are exceedingly stiff and hard. 
Wheat straw generally, being much harder and harsher 
to handle with the bare hands than oats or barley straw, 
it has been assumed that the straw of this kind of grain 
contains a larger proportion of silica than the straw of 
oats or barley, which is always much softer when han- 
dled by those who are binding the grain in bundles. 
Pierri, a distinguished French chemist, has reported 
some interesting experiments touching the subject of 
applying preparations of silica in a soluble state to the 
soil where the plants are to be grown, for the purpose 
of furnishing material that would render the straw so 
rigid and stiff that it would maintain an erect position, 
and thus greatly enhance the yield of grain per acre. 
This chemist ascertained that the leaves of wheat con- 
tain seven or eight times as much silica as the joints of 
the same stalks to which both belonged, and the por- 
tions of the straw between the joints yielded nearly 
twice the amount of silica that was found in the joints. 
Arguing from these data, some writers have concluded 



164 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



that by applying silicated fertilizers, the leaves will be 
developed more in proportion than the stalks ; and as 
large leaves will shade the lower j)arts of the stalks, 
instead of strengthening or stiffening the straw, a di'ess- 
ing of silica T^dll exert an enervating influence ; and the 
growing plants will maintain an erect position longer 
and better when no snch silicated manure is applied. 
It has also been assumed that those grain stalks which 
bear the largest leaves are more liable to lodge than 
stalks having short and small leaves. This observation 
is a correct one ; but the extraordinary size of the leaves 
of wheat is not attributable to an excess of silica in the 
soil, as silica, even when present in large quantities in 
the soil, does not produce unusually large leaves with- 
out rendering them correspondingly rough and stifi". It 
will be found, when grain lodges badly, that the leaves 
are large and much softer than the leaves of standing 
grain. Every practical farmer is familiar with this fact ; 
and it shows conclusively that there is a deficiency 
of silica in the soil in proportion to the amount of 
other manurial material. If, for examj)le, wheat be 
sowed on a light mucky soil where there is little or 
no sand or clay, the growing grain will be liable to 
fall do^\Ti before the kernels are matured. There 
will be also an abundance of material to form large 
leaves and stalks; but as there is a deficiency of sil- 
ica to impart stiffness to the straw, a di-i^dng storm 
of rain prostrates the growing plants so that they can 
never gain an erect position. The question then re- 
curs : What may be done by way of cultivation or ap- 
plying fertilizing material to stiffen the growing straw 
so as to keep it erect until the grain is fit to harvest? 
Throwing all chemical knowledge aside, and relying on 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUKIST. 



165 



practical observations in the field, we learn that certain 
canses produce certain effects, whether those effects are 
attributable to silica or to the presence of some other 
substance that enters into the formation of the straw 
of cereal grain. The facts stand out with remarkable 
prominence ; and whether chemists are able to explain 
the phenomena on principles strictly philosophical or 
not, practical farmers may avail themselves of the ob- 
servations and apply the knowledge to the augmenta- 
tion of the crop of grain by cultivating and di'essing 
the soil so as to produce stiff straw that will maintain 
an erect position till the grain is fully ripe. When 
cereal grain is grown on a sandy soil where wood-ashes 
have been scattered in liberal profusion, the straw is 
always exceedingly stiff. Almost every practical farm- 
er has observed how rank and stiff the straw of wheat 
and oats will always grow where a brush heap or log 
heap has been burned to ashes. On many wheat fields 
in all parts of the country, the grain growing Avhere a 
coal-pit was formed, perhaps forty years ago, will stand 
erect, the straw being very stiff", while the straw on every 
side of the old coal-bed is too limber to maintain an 
erect position. When wood-ashes have been spread 
upon the soil in large quantities grain seldom lodges, 
especially if there is only a small proportion of sand, 
or gravel, or argillaceous or calcareous matter in the 
soil. Where a ditch is cut through a mucky soil rest- 
ing on a subsoil of clay or sandy loam, and only a 
small quantity of this material is mingled with the sur- 
face soil, the growing grain will maintain an erect posi- 
tion much longer than the grain on either side where 
there is no clay or sand mingled with the muck. With 
these facts before our minds, a farmer who has only a 



166 THE WHEAT CIJLTUEIST. 

smattering of agricultural chemistry, understands Avliat 
he may do with the assurance of success, by way of -pre- 
venting his cereal grain from lodging. If the soil be 
light and filled with humus, attach a double or triple 
team to a strong plough, and turn up a new soil, which 
will furnish to the growing plants the desired material 
for making stiff straw. If the grain lodges on sandy 
land, let the ground be dressed with a liberal supply of 
marl or clay. Does the grain fall down where there is 
a preponderance of clay, apply a dressing of muck, sand, 
or peat. Whatever the soil may be, or whatever dress- 
ing may be applied, let it be borne in mind that wood- 
ashes, either leached or unleached, will make stiffer and 
brighter straw, and larger and heavier kernels of grain, 
than would have grown on the same ground had no 
wood-ashes been applied. These are incontrovertible 
facts which are not required to be established by agri- 
cultural chemistry. Those farmers, therefore, who sow 
their wood-ashes on their fields, where the growing 
grain is liable to fall down before it is ripe, will usually 
realize a larger profit per bushel than they are accus- 
tomed to receive when they sell their ashes for cash. 
Ashes may be sowed at almost any period after the 
growing season has commenced ; but the effect will be 
more satisfactory if they be sowed soon after the seed 
grain is put in. 

How TO OBTAIN StEONGER StEMS. 

Prof. J. B. Lawes, of Rothhamsted, Eng., says that he 
hai tried the experiment of sowing seed early — the last 
of August — and feeding with sheep during winter and 
spring, checking thereby the leaf and stem, and extend- 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



167 



ing the roots, hoping thus to obtain a plant which would 
resist wind and rain, and have stiffer straw. The effort 
met with little success. "At one time," he says of 
other experiments, " I was in hopes that we might by 
some chemical compounds increase the strength of the 
straw ; but I have been entirely unsuccessful, and do not 
anticipate there is much to be done by other experi- 
menters." In regard to thin seeding for this pm"j)ose, 
he says that by keeping the plants further apart, so as 
to admit more light, a stronger stem may be obtained, 
but at the expense of increased labor in weeding, and, 
generally, a decrease in the quality of the grain. 



What the Soil eequiees. 

It is safe to assume, at the outset, that the atmosphere 
is all right. Our finite minds cannot conceive how any 
improvement may be made in the chemical constituents 
of the atmosphere, for the pm^poses of vegetation. With 
all our knowledge of chemistry, we are not able to effect 
any change in the atmosphere, that will be of any prac- 
tical advantage, or injury, to growing crops. But we 
can modify the soil. By adding certain substances to it, 
the most barren earth and unproductive soil can be 
rendered exceedingly fertile and capable of producing 
beautiftil crops. The inexhaustible quantity of plant 
food floating in the atmosphere is ever in an available 
condition for promoting the growth and development 
of plants. In respect to availability of plant food, there 
is a marked difference between the plant food in the air 
and the vegetable nutrition that is locked up in the soil. 
The plant food in the atmosphere is sure to nourish the 
growing plants, whenever the tender leaves open their 



168 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



ten thousand mouths to drink in the delicious morsels 
which are to aid in building up the stems and unfold- 
ing the various j^^i'ts of the plant. The expanding 
leaves are always bountifully supplied with available 
nourishment. But it is not so with those parts of the 
plant that derive their nourishment from the soil. Grow- 
ing plants may send their numerous rootlets into the 
earth for food, when the untold number of hungry mouths 
may be completely enveloped in atoms of just such sub- 
stance as is required to promote the luxuriant growth 
of plants ; and still those plants may famish, droop, and 
die, simply because the vegetable nutrition was not in 
an available condition to promote the growth of the 
plants. Human beings are sometimes cast away on the 
briny ocean, where they famish and die for want of a 
refreshing draught of water, when nothing but a vast 
sea is spread out before them. 

Analytical chemists are capable of analyzing soil with 
such remarkable accuracy that they can detect a thou- 
sandth part of one grain of nitrogen, or phosphorus ; 
and yet their analyses, when made with the utmost pre- 
cision, may not always furnish any reliable data to aid 
the practical farmer in the cultivation of his fields. 

Carbonaceous Material. 

The vast quantities of suet stored about the kidneys 
of beef cattle, mutton sheep, and well-fattened swine, 
are composed largely of carbonaceous matter. The 
most excellent specimens of sugar are composed almost 
entirely of carbon. Charcoal is only a mass of almost 
pure carbon ; and the costly, beautiful diamond, is com- 
posed chiefly of carbon. Let either of these substances 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



169 



pass through a chemist's hands, and he pronounces them 
carbon. But what will they accomplish towards build- 
ing up the animal frame ? 

We feed our children with sugar, and the carbonaceous 
material in it nourishes them. The carbon in suet sup- 
plies large quantities of nourishment to carnivorous 
animals. But charcoal and the diamond, whether 
baked, or boiled, or fried, or broiled, or consumed with- 
out any preparation, will no more nourish the animal 
frame than salt water will quench thirst. 

These illustrations will suffice to show what the 
soil requires in order to render it fertile and productive. 
In order to be productive, the soil must be well supplied 
with available plant food. This is one of the funda- 
mental principles of vegetable physiology. If a soil be 
wanting in plant food, the first important thing to be 
done on the part of the husbandman, is to supply the 
deficiency. But if a soil contain plant food in abundance, 
and if the food be not availahle^ the duty of the hus- 
bandman will be to adopt such a system of manage- 
ment as will unlock the sealed-up treasures, and thus 
enable the growing plants to appropriate the material 
beneath the surface to the production of necessary 
human food. 

The question then returns with renewed emphasis — 
what does the soil req-iiire to render it fertile and 
productive f 

Aside from the mechanical condition of the soil — 
which comprehends thorough pulverization — there must 
be a bountiful supply of nitrogenous matter and phos- 
phoric acid in an available condition, where the numer- 
ous rootlets of growing plants can take up such sub- 
stances. 



170 



THE TTHEAT CULTUEIST. 



In nmiierous instances, the chief element wanting to 
make a soil prodnctive. is lime. But it is folly, and manv 
times injmious to the soil, to apply a di'essing of lime 
when lime is not the thing reqnii'ed. The only way in 

^vhich a tanner can deteri:.':: ? - h ether lime is required 
in a S'jil. is by numer-ja- cxpeiiments on his own 
land. 

Ashes are needed in almost every soil, on accotmt of 
the amount of p'T'tash required to form a stiff, healthy 
straw. See my re na: a a: a-kes in the latter part of 
this book, in the chapter on insects and diseases of wheat. 

TThat a Bap.p.ex Sr.iL Lacks. 

Daniel Lee, one of the most scientilic wi'iters of 
America on Agricultm*al Chemistry, writes : 

Eveiy obseiwing fanner knows that it is far easier to 

produce a large growtli of straw than a great yield of 
grain. This cjme^ n ini a lack of knowledge of the 
tilings which fjrm the seeds of cereal plants. Phos- 
phorus and ammonia, or available niti'ogen and phos- 
phoric acid — the things wanting in oat straw to make 
the seeds .jf tlrk pkint — are not very cheap nor abundant. 
Guano contai:;- a- 'r ? 'jf t: e:n than any other fertilizer 
now in the ma: k-:. E ji.-- also abound in these ele- 
ments. Limestone that contains the remains of shells 
a::d aakiiak. ak-:' a- j^^esses mare or less phosphoric acid. 
Ea: -.vVere a i> -o badly v-.jrn that it will not bear 
over twenty ba.-kek 'ji oats, it had better be seeded with 
clover, and limed, salted, plastered, and ashed, as well 
as manured, to a moderate extent. Tliis. with -suhsoil 
ploughing, will soC'R bring it up. while the crop of clover 
will pay all the expenses. 



THE WHEAT CL^LTTIKIST. 



171 



"Deep plonghing and clover, with its long tap-roots and 
numerous leaves, are admirably adapted to renovate a 
poor soil. 

In most of the wheat-growing districts, the rotation 
is limited to wheat and clover as a general rule — two sea- 
sons in clover and one in wheat. Sheep and horses eat 
most of the clover. In soils where lime and gypsum do 
not abound, they are applied, in greater or less quantities, 
to suit the particular case or views of the owner of the 
land. Mr. Elisha Harmon, of Wheatland, a large and 
excellent farmer, has one field that has borne a good 
crop of wheat every other year for fifteen years, without 
any diminution of the biennial yield. The alternating 
crop is clover. Wheatland, according to the late census, 
yields considerably more wheat per acre than any other 
town in the State. It is nearly covered with plaster 
beds, and its lime rock and soil abound in organic re- 
mains. These skeletons contain more or less of the 
elements necessary to form new plants and animals. 
There can be little doubt that if we should give to a 
field all the constituents of the crop we wished to grow, 
in a soluble form, and in due proportion, we might ob- 
tain a large yield every year of any plant. Where the 
elements of wheat are abundant, it is believed that they 
might be organized every year on one field, as well as 
every second or third year. 

" The wheat plant contains lime, soda, and chlorine. 
Soda and chlorine form common salt, which, like the 
salts of lime and potash, are quite soluble, and liable to 
be washed out of cultivated soils. The frequent appli- 
cation, in small doses, of these constituents of wheat to 
wheat fields, must be advantageous, irrespective of rust. 
It is believed that the production of a hright^ harcl^ and 



172 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



glassy stem^ is a pretty sure preventive of this evil, 
whether it be a disease of the plant, or a parasite, or 
both. We infer that soluble silica, or such sand as forms 
glass, has much to do in making a bright, glassy straw, 
for the reason that the ashes of wheat straw yield, on 
analysis, from 67 to 81 per cent, of silica. As the sand 
in the soil that furnishes this silica is quite insoluble, 
unless combined chemically with potash, or soda, or 
both, we see the great value of salt to yield soda, and 
of wood-ashes to yield potash, not only for wheat, but 
for all grasses. By mixing salt with recently-slaked 
lime, in the proportion of two parts of the latter to one 
of the former (which should be moistened, and again 
mixed with muck or mold equal in bulk to the lime), 
the chlorine in the salt will leave the sodium or soda 
free, and unite with the lime, forming a soluble salt 
called chloride of calcium. Being soluble, this salt will 
supply wheat and other plants with whatever lime and 
chlorine they may need. In one hundred pounds of 
common salt there are forty pounds of soda, which, being 
set free by lime in a moist soil, or compost, will com- 
bine with silica (silicic acid), and form a soluble salt 
called silicate of soda. The soluble silicates of soda and 
potash are partly decomposed in the stems of grasses, 
leaving insoluble silicates. Leached ashes obtained 
from plants are made up in a good degree of insoluble 
silicates of potash, soda, lime, and iron, with a little car- 
bonic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids." 



DlTFEEENT KlNDS OF MaNURE AND WhEAT. 



Boussingault, a distinguished agricultural chemist, 
instituted several interesting experiments to ascertain 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



173 



what effect fertilizers of different kinds would have on 
the chemical composition of the grain, particularly in 
the production of gluten ; and he ascertained that cer- 
tain kinds of fertilizing matter produced grain contain- 
ing a large percentage more of gluten than other 
specimens of the same kinds of grain, raised on soil 
exactly alike, and which was in close proximity, but 
fertilized with a different kind of manure. The large 
proportion of gluten and starch in wheat, renders wheat 
flour eminently superior to the meal of other cereal grain 
for bread, cake, biscuit, and other articles of human food. 
Indian corn affords a large percentage of superior starch ; 
but is deficient in gluten, for which reason Indian meal 
will not make so light bread and biscuit as wheat flour. 
The accompanying table will show the result of the ex- 
periment : 





BRAN, AND 
OTHER MATTER. 


STARCH. 


GLITTEN. 


Human urine 


25.6 


39.3 


25.6 


Bullocks' blood 


25.5 


41.3 


34.2 


Night soil 


25.5 


41.4 


31.1 


Sheep's dung 

Groat's dung 


24.3 


42.8 


32.9 


24.7 


42.4 


32.9 


Horse dung 


24.7 


61.6 


13.7 


Pigeon's dung 

Cows' dung 


24.6 


63.2 


12.2 


25.7 


62.3 


12.0 


No manure 


24.1 


66.7 


9.2 



The variation appears to be almost solely between the 
starch and gluten, as other portions differ but little. 
The percentage of gluten in white wheat raised in the 
United States, is stated to be 23 or 2i parts in every 100 ; 
and the amount of starch, sugar, gum, and water, about 
76 or 77. Wheat is valuable in proportion to the 
amount of gluten it will yield in making bread and cake. 



174 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



Certain kinds of wheat will yield mncli more than 
others ; and the same grain, when grown for several 
successive seasons in a given climate, will yield more or 
less glnten, according as it is raised on a wheat soil — a 
soil containing a large proportion of clay — and manured 
with that kind of fertilizing material which tends to in- 
crease the quantity of gluten. 

The table shows that ground fertilized with human 
mine produced wheat containing more gluten than the 
grain grown by the application of any other fertihzing 
matter. This suggests the great importance of saving 
all such liquid, and applying it to the soil, to increase 
the yield of this excellent grain, instead of allowing it to 
remain where it will be an offensi^'e nuisance to the in- 
mates of the dwelling-house. By having a few loads of 
muck, peat, finely-pulverized alluvial soil, sawdust, or 
some other good absorbent, where such fecal matter may 
be received, a large quantity of superior manm-e may be 
made during the year, for top-dressing wheat. Almost 
every kind of soil where wheat gi'ows needs a small 
quantity of excellent manm-e. 

Home-made Poudeette foe Wheat. 

Poudi'ette, when unadulterated and properly applied, 
is one of the most valuable manures for wheat that can be 
employed, because there is such an abundance of grain- 
producing material in the raw fertilizing matter of 
which poudrette is made. Yery few families in Amer- 
ica make any effort to utilize the large quantities of 
human excrement which are allowed to accumulate 
until the putrid mass becomes an offensive nuisance. 
Witli proper management, every family might accumu- 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



175 



late a quantity of poudrette every year sufficient to 
produce all the wheat required for their daily bread 
through the entire year. It is true that the fecal mat- 
ter of a single person amounts to only a small quantity 
per day. We will suppose the average accumulation 
will not exceed one pound. At this estimate, the quan- 
tity collected in one year would amount to three hun- 
dred and sixty-five pounds for each person, of superior 
fertilizing material, which will produce as much wheat 
as the same number of pounds of Peruvian guano, pro- 
vided the former be properly composted. It seems 
quite unnecessary to enlarge, in this place, on the man- 
urial value of human excrement and human m^ine, as 
every person of ordinary intelligence must know that 
such raw material abounds largely in just such substance 
as the growing wheat-plants must have in abundance, 
in order to develop a bountiful }deld of grain. 

The question then recurs, how may such offensive 
material be utilized in an advantageous manner so as to 
promote the growth of the wheat crop ? I answer, by 
having the privy properly constructed, so as to save 
both the solid and the liquid portions, and render the 
mass inodorous, so that the compost may be easily ap- 
plied to the soil. If the privy is pro23erly constructed, 
there will be little difficulty in handling the fecal mate- 
rial with a shovel. 

The accompanying cut, Fig. 33, will convey a fair 
idea of a convenient manner of making a privy for the 
purpose of saving the manure. The illustration hardly 
needs an explanation. It will be perceived that the 
building is supported on brick pillars. Stone, or durable 
wood posts, would subserve a satisfactory purpose. A 
water-tight box, with sides about a foot high, should be 



176 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



placed beneath the building, and dry muck, or dry pul- 
verized clay should be mingled with the daily accumu- 
lations. By allowing the box or sink to extend beyond 
the side of the privy, it will not be found difficult to 




Fig. 33. — Poudrette manufactory. 



shovel over the compost in any part of the box. A 
water-tight lid should be placed over the box to exclude 
rain and snow. It is not necessary to place the box as 
far under the building as it is represented in the figure. 

Always keep an abundance of muck, dry clay, or 
mellow earth on hand, so as to absorb all the manurial 
properties that would readily escape into the air. Keep 
out ashes and lime, as these substances will injure the 
manure. A. thin dressing of such compost will produce 
a heavy growth of wheat. Poudrette should always 
be applied as a thin dressing on the surface, and covered 
with soil. (Eead my remarks on this kind of manure 
in the second volume of- the Young Farmer's Manual.) 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



ITT 



Why I^iTROG-ENors Manures are eequtred for 
"Wheat. 

Although an application of snperpliosphate of lime 
will grow a large crop of turnips with the aid of a very 
little organic manure, and red clover will grow luxu- 
riantly on a medium-conditioned soil, with the aid of 
the same application, or a little plaster, yet no grain 
crop will reach the maximum on such a soil, no matter 
how rich you make it in all the mineral and inorganic 
elements, without a liberal application of nitrogenous, 
well-saved stall manure, or its equivalent in Peruvian 
guano or ammonia salts. J. B. Lawes, in his long series 
of experiments, ascertained conclusively that where 
every mineral element was in the soil necessary for a 
maximum crop of wheat, the yield of wheat on an acre 
was doubled by the aid of two hundred pounds of 
sulphate of ammonia alone ; and Indian corn being 
a great feeder, it is in much greater need of more 
nitrogen (ammonia) than the more dainty wheat plant ; 
in fact it may be truly said, the more ammonia the 
more corn, provided the soil is well drained and tilled. 
As neither the stalks nor grain of cereal plants con- 
tain nitrogen in anything hke the proportion in which 
it is found in peas, beans, clover, and other legumi- 
nous plants, Mr. Lawes has come to the very reasona- 
ble conclusion that wheat, barley, rye, timothy, etc., 
destroy nitrogen during the process of their growth, or 
rather that nitrogenous compounds are used up and 
destroyed in making other matters in the soil into solu- 
ble plant food. Liebig says that quicklime applied to 
the soil, particularly to clay, dissolves the silicates into 
soluble plant food. If this is so, attplus forte Qxiison, 
■ 8* 



178 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



we should expect that the salts of ammonia would per- 
form the same office to all the insoluble matters in the 
soil necessary for the maximum growth of the plants it 
supports. 

The result of these experiments should teach grain- 
growing farmers the great importance of also growing 
red - clover and other leguminous plants, which collect 
most of their nitrogen from the dew, rain, and air, and 
yet retain it in their tissues to twice the amount that it 
is found in the cereal grasses. Thus, clover, peas, beans, 
etc., whether ploughed under in the green state or fed 
to animals and the manure applied to the soil, are nearly 
thrice the value of manure made from the cereal grasses. 

On the light, sandy soils of Georgia, the cow pea is 
grown as a manuring plant, and ploughed in green ; as 
peas and beans contain three times as much nitrogen 
as wheat or other cereals, the Georgia planter proves 
the truth of chemical analysis in his own success. The 
clover plant being of the same order as the cow pea 
(leguminous), consuming little, but affording a great deal 
of nitrogen, so necessary to all cereal crops, every farmer 
who grows grain, or even timothy and other narrow- 
leaved grasses, should also grow clover without stint. 
But while the cereals require a soil richer in nitrogen 
than in the mineral elements of plant food, yet a liberal 
supply of superphosphate of lime will also add to the 
incipient growth of cereals, and to the stalks but not to 
the grain of Indian corn, and to turnips and all legu- 
minous plants the minerals are especially beneficial. 
Mr. Lawes wrote to a farmer thus : " When the alkalies 
and phosphates alone are used, the pasture is a mass of 
clover and trefoil ; but wlien ammonia is used, is all 
grass." (See Maine Farmer " on this subject.) 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



179 



MANUEma Wheat, by John Johnston. 

John Johnston, of Seneca County, 'New York, whose 
authority on wheat-growing has ever been considered 
unquestionable, wrote to Colonel Johnson thus : " What 
success I have had in raising wheat is mainly from ma- 
nuring. Before I ever thought of draining, by manur- 
ing my driest land, I raised excellent wheat crops. ^sTow, 
by having all my land dry, a great deal less manure will 
o/nswer. On dry land manured, the wheat, or at least 
the greater part of it, gets forward in spring, so as to 
escape the midge ; at least in common seasons. It does 
so with me ; and I am more and more convinced, that 
where a farmer has a good crop of straw, it will pay 
him well to feed all the sheep he can, even if he feed 
them each one dollar's worth of oil cake meal, and get 
the pay only in the mamire. But it is scarcely possible 
that the sheep will not pay it. If he shears them, they 
will at least give him two pounds of wool more per 
head ; and then, the carcass, for either keeping over, or 
for wintering another season, is, I firmly believe, worth 
a dollar. I have often fed merino lambs not over seven- 
ty cents' worth of oil meal during winter, and good hay ; 
and sold them in spring, say April and May, at five dol- 
lars each, when, if they had been fed in the common 
way of feeding, they would not have been worth more 
than two dollars, if that. 

" Then, only think of the difference in the value 
of the manure! I tell you, sir, if your society (The 
I^ew York State Agricultural Society) can only in- 
duce the farmers of the State of J^ew York to feed 
their stock plentifuU}^ of grain, or oil cake, and make 
their land dry by under-draining when it is wet, 



180 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



we shall make better crops of wheat than the aver- 
age yield was, at any time, since I was a resident 
of the State. There is no guess-work abont this, 
for with me, it has proved true ; and it cannot fail 
to be so with others. It is true that we must ex- 
pect some faihu'es. But if farmers will do their duty 
to the land, their failures will be fewer and farther be- 
tween than ever heretofore. I have seldom seen a fail- 
ing crop of wheat when it got a good root in autumn. 
I had a small piece of land, say not quite two acres, that 
never was manured. In 1856, the wheat on that part 
of the field was quite light, and the other part of the 
field (twenty-six acres) excellent ; and on the first of 
October, 1856, I gave one-half of the piece a light ma- 
nuring of rotten manure from the cattle-yards, say at 
the rate of about ten common two -horse wao-on loads to 
the acre — the manure showed immediately on young 
clover. I summer-fallowed the field ; and sowed with 
wheat early in September. The wheat was no sooner 
up, than that part manured showed plainly, from the 
part that was never manured. Some may say, why did 
he not manure the whole of the piece when he was 
about it ? I ansv/er, that I left a part of it to convince 
my tenant (as I don't work much of my farm myself, 
now), and others who may see it, the necessity of mak- 
ing and saving all the manure possible. (JSTothing will 
make people believe like seeing.)" 

Manuring with Guano. 

R. T. Hubbard, of Buckingham County, Yirginia, 
writes, in relation to the practice of applying guano to 
the soil for wheat, as follows: "Within the last five 
years, several farmers in this and the adjacent counties 



THE WHEAT CTJLTIIRIST. 



181 



have sown guano npon their wheat land; and, while I 
have heard of some disappointment, the testimony pre- 
ponderates in favor of gnano as a valuable fertilizer. This 
manure condenses great power in a small bulk ; and 
hence its portctbility gives it a great recommendation 
v>dth al] who properly appreciate the value of labor and 
time. The quantity generally so^vn upon wheat land 
is 200 pounds to the acre. I believe that most of those 
who use guano in Yirginia have acted upon the plan — 
strongly enforced a few years ago — of ploughing in the 
guano deep^ then sowing the wheat, and covering it by 
the harrow or one-horse ploughs. The reason assigned 
in favor of burying the guano deep, is the tendency of 
its ammonia to escape rapidly. To guard against this 
tendency, plaster may be mixed with guano in propor- 
tion of one-fourth of the former to three-fourths of the 
latter ; thus combined, the sulphuric acid of the plaster 
will unite with the ammonia of the guano, and retain it 
for the gradual nourishment and progressive develop- 
ment of the growing crop. So far as my limited experi- 
ence has enabled me to judge, I am opposed to plough- 
ing in guano very deep. Instead of ploughing it under 
to the depth of eight or ten inches, with ploughs drawn 
by two or three horses, I prefer to plough it in with one- 
horse ploughs, and to cover the guano only three or four 
inches. In this way I believe the guano becomes more 
speedily and more thoroughly incorporated with the soil 
than at a lower depth, and that the effect upon the 
wheat crop is more beneficial. I am aware that this 
method has been objected to upon the ground that, al- 
though the effect of guano may be very apparent and 
very salutary when thus applied, it is more evanescent 
than when covered deep. On the contrary, I think that 



182 



THE WHEAT CFLTUEIST. 



the effect of guano is not only more decided and bene- 
ficial when it is ploughed in superficially, but that its 
effects are equally, if not more, permanent. Ammonia 
is one of the most yaluable constituents of stable manure ; 
yet the almost inyariable practice — a practice sanctioned 
equalh^ by experience and obseryation — is to plough in 
this kind of manure superficially. I haye heard of no 
one in Yirginia whose success in the use of guano has 
been more encouraging than that of Mr. Willoughby 
I^ewton, of Westmoreland, who has been con\dnced by 
experience that guano exerts a more powerful influence 
when ploughed in superficially than when ploughed in 
deep, as recommended by others. This manure aug- 
ments the crop of wheat, and insures a good stand of 
clover ; but in our country its effect is not supposed to 
continue more than twelve or eighteen months beyond 
the period of application." 

FUETHEE TESXmOXY ABOUT GuAXO. 

E. G. Booth, I^ottaway County, Yii'ginia, wi'ites thus : 
" Guano and other fertilizers are so generally used now, 
and so much more attention bestowed on improyement 
of land, that the product has been greatly increased 
within the last few years. I haye not used guano ex- 
tensively, but sufficiently so to express the confident 
con^dction that it would quadruple the product on poor 
land. The proportion of increase is not so great on rich 
land. The plan generally adopted in this section is to 
turn it under with a two-horse plough. Intelligent 
pi'actical farmers are now preparing to harrow it in with 
the wheat. I consider it such a powerful stimulant that 
it will act well when applied in most any way, except 
top-di-essing. It is too volatile for that." 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



183 



Btkyixg Ma^sTee Deep oe Shallow eoe Wheat. 

]S"otAvithstanding all that lias been AA'ritteii on tlie sub- 
ject of burying manure shallow, in preference to covering- 
it deep, there are still some farmers who will contend 
that it is preferable to scatter the manure in a deep fur- 
row, to simply covering it with a thin sti'atum of earth. 
It is far better to cover manure only two inches deep, for 
Avinter wheat, than to bury it in a fm-row six inches 
in depth. I may repeat what I have stated in another 
part of this book : that manure for icinter grain should 
always be kept near the surface of the ground, so that 
the coronal roots of the wheat plant (or the winter rye, 
or winter barley plants) may spread out horizontally, 
rather than strike downward nearly in a vertical direc- 
tion, as horizontal routs will keep the young plants fi'om 
being lifted out by the freezing of the soil. (See the chapter 
on ^Manures, in the second volume of my Young Farmer's 
Manual.; 

For the purpose of testing the advantage of burying 
manure shallow, some farmers in Pennsylvania tried an 
experiment in applying manure to their wheat ground. 
One farmer contended that manure should be tm'ned 
under deep Avith the lirst ploughing ; and the other that 
it should be buried shallow, with the second ploughing. 
To settle the point as near as possible, these two agreed 
to try one-half of each of then- fields each way, and let the 
the rest judge by vote which was best. In both cases 
one-half of the manure was hauled out as soon as the oats 
were oft", and ploughed under deep ; then the remainder 
of the field was ploughed to the same depth, well harrow- 
ed and rolled ; the balance of tlie manure was then 
hauled out, spread, and a portion (about one-fourth) of 



184 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



each field ploughed in shallow (six inches deep), and the 
remainder of the manure was allowed to remain on the 
surface till near seeding time, when it was also tm'ned 
under shallow. 

The two fields were visited by a committee, and a re- 
port of each visit prepared. The whole of the reports 
summed up is about this : that throughout that portioD 
where the manure was turned under by the second plough- 
ing as soon as spread, the wheat was always the best in 
appearance ; the straw is better, and the grain is heavier 
and plumper. The decision was, that the manure should 
be turned under about six inches deep with the second 
ploughing, and as soon as sjrread^ or as soon after it is 
spread as practicahle. 

Remarks. — If a farmer will reflect for a moment, 
common sense will con^^nce him, that the fertilizing 
material should be deposited, as nearly as practicable, 
on a horizontal line with the seed, so that the young 
roots may derive nom-ishment from it, soon after the 
plants begin to grow. When manure is spread on a grass 
sod, or clover sod, whether wheat is to be raised or any 
other grain, the land should be ploughed shallow, for the 
purpose of keeping the manm-e as near the surface as 
practicable. 

Shallow PLouGHmG for Wheat. 

The Editor of the " Genesee Farmer " recorded the 
following remarks, in relation to the culture of wheat. 
But the reader must bear in mind that he has refer- 
ence to wheat on light soils. Every intelligent farmer 
knows that it would not improve the productiveness of 
heavy, clay soils to roll the surface, or tread it with 
sheep. The allusion made by the writer to ploughing 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTIRIST. 



185 



clover sod shallow for wheat, corroborates what I have 
advocated in this book — that a shallow stratum of mould 
should be prepared on the surface of the land to induce 
the roots to spread horizontally as much as possible, for 
the purpose of resisting the action of frost in heaving 
out the young plants. The writer says : 

" A wheat soil must be compact. If it is not so natur 
ally, mechanical means should be employed to compress 
it. Treading light wheat land in the fall or early in the 
spring with sheep, is frequently beneficial, and a good 
heavy roller is decidedly advantageous. Crosskill's Clod 
Crusher, compressing land, as it does, similarly to the 
treading of sheep, is found very useful on sandy wheat 
fields in England. "We are earnest advocates of deep 
ploughing and thorough pulverization of the soil, but 
these must not be carried to excess in wheat culture. It is 
easy to make the light land too fine and loose for wheat. 
Wlien wheat is sown on a clover sod after one ploughing, 
it is not advisable to plough it too deep ; if the sod is all 
covered and a good ' seed-bed ' obtained, that is enough. 
Subsoil and plough deep for corn and root crops ; and, if 
the ground be summer-fallowed, let it be subsoiled for 
wheat also ; but if wheat is sown at one furrow on a 
clover sod turned under immediately before seeding, we 
should seldom go more than six inches deep. The best 
large field of wheat we ever saw in England, was on a 
calcareous loam that had been two years in red clover, 
grazed with sheep, which, a considerable portion of the 
time, were allowed a pound of oil-cake per day. It was 
ploughed about thi-ee inclies deep, just before sowing, and 
a bushel and a half of seed drilled in per acre, one foot 
apart in the drills. The yield was fifty-five bushels per 
acre." 



186 



THE WHEAT CIJLTUEIST. 



Wheat after Potatoes. 

From a letter penned by J. W. Hutchins, a practical 
farmer of Templeton, Mass., the following extracts are 
taken on this subject, which will corroborate the point 
that has been repeated and again reiterated, that in order 
to raise wheat successfully the ground must be thoroughly 
fertilized with rich manure at least one or two seasons 
previous to the time of putting in the seed. The writer 
says : "In some parts of 'New England there is con- 
siderable prejudice among farmers in regard to the cul- 
ture of wheat. Many having tried once or twice to raise 
this kind of grain and failing, declare that wheat can- 
not be grown successfully except on certain farms. I, 
however, believe that wheat can be cultivated with 
profit by most farmers in E"ew England, although it re- 
quires some experience to raise a good crop. In saying 
this, I do not wish to be understood that wheat can be 
raised with satisfactory profit on all kinds of soil, for it 
cannot. Still, I do believe that most farmers in the 
l^ew England States can, by judicious management, and 
they ought, to raise wheat for their own families. Wheat 
ought to be grown because it is an excellent article of 
food ; and when successfully cultivated, it is more profit- 
able than any other grain. Moreover, a crop of wheat 
exhausts the soil where it grows, less than a crop of oats 
or barley ; and grass seed when sowed for stocking down 
the land, will germinate and grow better than when 
sowed where other cereals are growing. IIa\dng had 
considerable experience and good success in raising 
wheat and other crops, perhaps it may not be amiss to 
record some of my observations and practice, for the 
benefit of my brother farmers ; although I feel that I am 



THE WHEAT CIJLTTJRIST. 



187 



just a 'begmner^ and by no means master of the science 
of agricultnre, wliicli is tHe greatest of all sciences. 
And as every science is developed by small beginnings, 
why may I not add my mite of knowledge to aid those 
who may be inquiring after truth ? 

" The seasons, of course, will exert more or less influ- 
ence on all kinds of crops. Still, in order to raise boun- 
tiful crops of any kind, farmers have duties to perform ; 
and if they expect to succeed and thrive, it behooves 
them to ascertain what these duties are. I seldom fail 
to raise a bountiful crop of wheat, and hardly ever real- 
ize less than twenty bushels per acre ; and I have raised 
as many as thirty-five bushels per acre. Last season I 
raised, on two and a half acres, and from fom* and a half 
bushels of seed, seventy-five and a half bushels of grain 
by weight. My mode of procedure is as follows : I 
usually raise a crop of wheat after potatoes. Wlien I 
first break up a piece of land, I almost invariably plant 
Indian corn and manure in the hill with wood ashes, 
etc. The next season the land is heavily manured with 
barn-yard manm^e, and planted with potatoes, l^o 
manure is applied in the hill, except gypsum. I have 
raised but two poor crops in eleven years ; and some 
seasons my ground has produced four hundred bushels 
of potatoes per acre. Land thus managed, has been 
planted two successive seasons. By the numerous opera- 
tions of ploughing, hoeing, and digging the potatoes, the 
manure is thoroughly rotted, and mingled with the soil, 
instead of being left in large lumps to evaporate and 
thus lose its strength. By this management my land has 
been enriched and the fertility equalized, and is thus in 
an excellent condition to produce both straw and grain. 
In conclusion, I would say to farmers, if you have ma- 



188 



THE "WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



niired your land boimtifullj, plough deep and put in your 
grain early ; and do not be afraid of planting the seed 
too deep. Keep yonr old-fashioned, iron-toothed har- 
rows oft* the land where seed wheat has been sowed ; 
because this style of harrow does not work the grain 
into the soil as deep as the seed should be buried. And 
more than this, the more you harrow mellow ground 
with such a harrow, the harder it becomes. Procure a 
good cultivator harrow, as such implements work like a 
charm, leaving the ground light, and bury the seed as 
deep as it should be covered. I sow spring wheat of 
the French Tea variety." 



Geowtn-g Wheat axd Tuexips. 

" No bone-dust, no turnips ; no turnips no wheat ; 
Ifo wheat and no turnips, no cattle no meat ; 
No turnips, no cattle, nor manure in the yard, 
Makes bills for the doctors, and farming go hard." 

If there is any one practice among American farmers, 
for which they deserve sharp rebuke, it is for permitting 
such immense quantities of bones to be exported for the 
improvement of the agriculture of foreign nations. 
Thousands of tons of bones are collected annually in 
Chicago, Buftalo, l^ew York, and other populous cities, 
and shipped to European countries to fertilize the land 
for raising turnips, wheat, fat cattle, and sheep. And 
yet, American farmers, in stupid quietude, look on and 
say : "It don't pay to collect bones, and apply them to 
the soil." 

It will pay. They have not tested the application of 
ground bone. There is not a meadow nor a pasture in 
the land — with very few exceptions — that will not be 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



189 



greatly benefited hy a dressing of ground raw bone. 
Thousands of acres of the best farming land in 'New 
England are in a low state of impoverishment for the 
want of a liberal dressing of raw ground bone. Such 
fertilizing matter is the very life of the soil. European 
farmers understand and appreciate this fact. They 
know it pays to ship bones from America to enrich 
their farms. The value of every ship-load of bones 
that is picked from our land cannot readily be computed 
in dollars and cents to the agriculture of our country. 
England delights in her own fatness produced on tlie 
choice cheese of American dairies, while we mutter and 
grumble over a pot of the whey. Europeans rejoice 
over the rich, sweet American butter, while we are so 
unaccountably stupid as to be satisfied with the butter- 
milk. Our farmers dig and delve, and rake and scrape 
their grain-fields, meadows, and pastures to get phos- 
phatic fertilizers to send to Europe to produce big crops 
of turnips, and then grumble and denounce their own 
land as good for nothing, because their turnips refuse to 
grow as they do in Eastern countries. The truth on 
this point is, American farmers must save and apply 
more manure to their impoverished land: especially 
must they save bones for growing a crop of turnips. As 
soon as we can produce a bountiful crop of turnips we 
can grow wheat. Wheat and turnips in England go 
hand in hand. And when the wheat soils of America 
are rendered sufficiently fertile to produce a crop of tur- 
nips, we may have the eminent satisfaction of seeing 
bountiful crops of choice wheat, where now the yield 
will scarcely defray the expenses of harvesting and 
thrashing the crop. Sometimes a farmer will have to 
cultivate for several years before he can produce wheat. 



190 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



"Wheat aeter Peas. 

A crop of peas is one of the most advantageous crops to 
precede winter wheat. In many sections of the conntrj, 
wliere winter wheat is cultivated to considerable extent, 
a crop of early peas is preferred, as a preparatory crop, 
where winter wheat is to grow. But, a thin dressing 
of well-rotted barn-yard manure is usually prepared 
during the summer, and ploughed in, after the peas are 
harvested. In some instances the manure is hauled 
to the field as soon as the peas have been re- 
moved, and is ploughed under, and the wheat put in 
as soon as it is practicable to do it, after the first of 
September. 

Another mode, which is preferred by some good 
farmers, is to remove the peas as early in August as 
practicable, and plough the ground from six to eight 
inches deep ; and then, about the first of September, 
spread the manure, very evenly and thin, over the entire 
soil ; and then plough it under with a gang-plough, or 
with such a cultivator as is illustrated on page 142 of this 
book, adjusted to run about four inches deep, after 
which the wheat is drilled in. 

The preparation which the barn -yard manure receives, 
when it is applied for wheat, after a crop of peas, is, 
to haul the manure from the barn-yard in the former 
part of the season, and pile it up in the" field during 
the summer, forking it over sometimes, in order to have 
it well rotted and finely pulverized ; and after the ground 
has been ploughed once with the common plough, and 
sometimes crossed with the gang-ploughs, the manure is 
neatly spread on the surface, and the ground thoroughly 
harrowed, by which the manure is about all covered 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



191 



with more or less earth near the surface of the ground. 
This system of management usually insures a fair 
crop of wheat. But, on certain kinds of soil, the prep- 
aration is not as it should be for a crop of winter grain. 
Where the surface soil is thin — where there is only a 
thin stratum of vegetable mould, special care should be 
exercised to keep the mould at the surface, and not 
turn it all seven or eight inches beneath a cold and un- 
fertile subsoil. I have observed, that some farmers 
have failed entirely to produce a fair crop of wheat 
after peas, because they did not observe this precaution, 
to keep their best soil at the surface. There was only 
a thin stratum of mould resting on a heavy, calcareous 
clay, which was turned up to the surface ; while all the 
manure and fertile mould .were buried beyond the imme- 
diate reach of the young plants. 

The ground, in such localities, should always be 
ploughed shallow ; and the seed-bed should be deepened 
by a regular subsoil plough, or with such an one as I 
have illustrated on page 162. The best soil should be 
kept near the surface ; and the fine manure should be 
covered as lightly as practicable, for the reason which 
has been assigned in the former part of this chapter. 
(Eead also the remarks under the Habit of the Wheat 
Plant ; and How Freezing and Thawing Injures Grow- 
ing Wheat, on page 126.) 

As a crop of early peas will mature in a short period 
of time ; as the vines grow rapidly, and thus get the 
start of weeds ; and as the crop takes up only a small 
quantity of the wheat-producing material in the soil, 
this crop can be raised with more profit than a crop of 
oats, barley, or Indian corn, in some instances. A crop 
of growing peas, when there is not an excess of moist- 



192 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



ure in the soil, will often render a compact and lumpy 
soil as mellow and lively as a friable loam. When the 
peas are fed ont to fattening stock, and the manm'e of 
the animals saved with care, and returned to the soil 
where the peas grew, the pea crop will always be found 
an excellent ameliorator of a heavy and poor soil. A 
crop of green peas will always be found fully equal to a 
crop of red clover to turn under with the plough as a 
renovator of a poor soil. Yet I would prefer a crop of 
Indian corn for such a purpose, as the stalks will furnish 
more vegetable matter than a crop of peas. (Read the 
chapter on Manures in my second volume of the Young 
Farmer's Manual.) 

Peas are a very exhausting crop, when everything is 
removed from the field and nothing returned to the soil 
as an equivalent for the crop. But when the peas are 
all fed out to stock, and their manure saved and applied 
to the land, peas are an excellent renovator ; and where 
the soil is heavy, a crop of peas should constitute a 
prominent one in the rotation system, especially where 
winter wheat is cultivated. 

Joseph Harris, who resides in one of the finest wheat- 
growing counties of New York, writes : " In preparing 
heavy land for wheat, it is still necessary, in many 
cases, to resort to summer fallows. On the light soils 
we may take a crop of beans, planted in rows and thor- 
oughly horse-hoed, and sow wheat afterward. On 
heavier soils I have seen an excellent crop of wheat 
follow a crop of peas, which had been sown instead of 
fallowing. The great drawback to the peas is that they 
are affected by the bug. But if fed out early to hogs, 
the bugs do not injure them materially, while they are 
very fattening and make rich manure. You can com- 



THE WHEAT CULTTIRIST. 



193 



mence feeding them to hogs on the land, while the peas 
are still green." 

Sheep m Connection with "Wheat. 

Although bountiful crops of wheat may be produced 
by the application of commercial fertilizers to the soil, 
still the true way to grow wheat successfully is to keep 
sheep and make mutton, and at the same time employ 
their manure to maintain the fertility of the soil. 
Bountiful crops of wheat can be grown in connection 
with fatting neat cattle and hogs, or horses, provided 
the animals get a liberal supply of coarse grain ; and 
providing also their manure be saved with care and ap- 
plied to the soil. Farmers may set it down as an incon 
trover tible fact, that they cannot grow wheat of any 
kind successfully, without applying to the soil some kind 
of fertilizing material that will supply an abundance of 
grain-producing pabulum in the soil for the develop- 
ment of the wheat kernels. I will reiterate what will 
bear repeating again and again, that if the land be ma- 
nured with strawy manure, the crops of wheat will be 
mostly straw, with a small yield of grain. We cannot 
cheat any soil by manuring with haulm, and think to 
get a heavy yield of grain. If the ground be enriched 
with grain-producing material, a farmer can hardly fail 
to realize a fair crop. One of the most efficacious ways 
to secure a bountiful yield of wlieat would be to sow 
wheat flour, or drill it in with the seed grain. 

If I desired to produce the largest crop of wheat that 
had ever been grown, after enriching the soil with a 
liberal dressing of the best manure, I would sow thirty 
or forty bushels of wheat flour per acre, drilling it in 

9 



194 



THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



with the seed grain. Such a dressing would operate 
like magic in the production of a heavy crop of wheat. 
I would not recommend the practice of sowing wheat 
flour, for the purpose of ]3roducing an enormous crop of 
grain ; I simply allude to this suggestion of fertilizing 
the soil with wheat flour, for the purpose of showing 
that in order to raise wheat there must be some material 
in the soil that the wheat plants will take up and appro- 
priate to the development of the new grain. These 
thoughts will show the young farmer what the soil re- 
quires. 

IvTow, the question arises, how can a farmer employ 
his grain as a fertilizer, and at the same time avail him- 
self of its cash value besides ? _ I answer, by making 
mutton, and applying the valuable manure of his fat 
sheep to his soil. When grain or meal is fed to fat- 
tening stock, only a small part of it is appropriated to 
the growth and development of the animal, while a 
large proportion is cast out into the manure heap. This 
is the material for producing a large yield of grain. 
Manure that is made by fattening sheep will furnish 
large supplies of just such materials as the wheat plants 
must have, to yield a bountiful crop of grain. Conse- 
quently, if a farmer will combine sheep-fattening with 
wheat-growing, he can scarcely fail to bring an ordinary 
soil into such a state of fertility, in a few years, that he 
can reap bountiful crops of wheat of a choice quality. 
But sheep-raising and wheat-growing will not succeed 
at all satisfactorily, unless sheep are kept in a growing 
and thrifty condition by feeding large quantities of 
coarse grain, and oil meal and turnips, or roots of some 
kind. A farmer may just as well take the products of 
his land and pitch them into the mill-pond, and think to 



THE WHEAT CrLTUEIST. 



195 



improve the productiveness of his land, as to attempt to 
feed and fatten sheep without first selecting animals 
that will fatten readily. Another consideration is, prop- 
er protection of sheep. Wet and cold weather is ex- 
ceedingly detrimental to sheep of any kind. Water 
dripping through leaky sheds i^ very disagreeable and 
injurious to sheep. They always hate a wet and cold 
place, as much so as a neat cat hates a wet fioor. 

The leading idea in fattening sheep should be, to pre- 
pare a large supply of rich manure, especially when a 
crop of wheat is desired. A fiock of sheep will reduce 
a large stack of straw to manm^e more readily than it 
can be done with a lot of neat cattle. But the sheep 
must have grain, and some oil meal mingled with the 
grain, or with the grain meal. If sheep are young, and 
have excellent teethj and a grist mill is not conveniently 
near, it will not pay to grind grain before feeding it to 
sheep, as they masticate their feed remarkably fine. It 
is a rare occurrence that any kind of grain or seeds of 
noxious weeds pass through sheep without having the 
vitality of the germs destroyed. For this reason whole 
grain may be fed to sheep with satisfactory profit, when 
the same grain could not be fed to neat cattle with 
desirable results. I think farmers will understand my 
idea of feeding sheep on coarse grain with a view to ren- 
ovating the soil for the production of wheat. There is 
no other feasible and practicable manner of maintaining 
the perpetual fertility of the wheat fields of America 
than by growing red clover, fattening sheep, hogs, or 
neat cattle, and raising a bountiful supply of turnips 
for stock during the foddering season. By feeding 
coarse grain, turnips, oil meal, red clover, and wheat 
straw to sheep, and by applying their manure judiciously 



196 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



to the land, after a few years of skilful management the 
productiveness of poor farms may be greatly improved, 
and good land can be rendered much more productive. 
Oil meal and coarse grain fed to sheep in connection 
with some hay, cornstalks, and wheat straw, will make 
a quality of manure that will produce wheat on almost 
any kind of soil, whether it is light or heavy. 

Wheat and Cattle. 

In the second volume of my Young Farmer's Manual 
I penned some suggestions touching the importance of 
adopting a mixed husbandry. That is the true way to 
maintain the fertility of the soil, especially where rais- 
ing wheat constitutes a part of the products of the 
farm. Intimately connected with the subject under 
consideration are the remarks of the Editor of the 
" Western Rural," who writes : 

" Michigan farmers have a mania for growing wheat, 
while they too much neglect other important and profit- 
able farm products. In 1860, Michigan produced 
8,313,185 bushels of wheat — a little more than one- 
twentieth of the whole amount grown in the United 
States. Of cheese in the same year it produced only 
2,009,064 pounds. The little State of Yermont, with 
an area about two-elevenths as great, produced 8,077,089 
pounds of cheese, but only 431,127 bushels of wheat. 
That Yermont did not grow so little wheat because her 
soil is not adapted to wheat culture, is shown from the 
fact that the average yield of wheat per acre in Yer- 
mont, in the year 1864, as shown by the Report of the 
Department of Agriculture for January, 1865, was four- 
teen bushels per acre, while in Michigan the average 



THE WHEAT CULTTJMST. 



197 



yield per acre for the same year was but twelve bushels. 
Thus it is seen that although the farmers of Vermont 
can grow fourteen bushels of wheat on the amount of 
land from which Michigan farmers get twelve bushels, 
yet the Vermont farmers prefer to give attention to 
dairy products to the almost entire neglect of wheat. 
Why is this ? Evidently because they find dairy farm- 
ing the most profitable. 

Michigan farmers do not manufacture cheese enough 
to supply the home market, but give their labor and 
land to the production of but twelve bushels of wheat 
per acre. In the early days of the State, when wheat 
was almost the only article that brought the farmer 
ready money, when it was a sure crop, when the soil 
was a virgin one, and when most farmers possessed but 
little capital, there were doubtless good reasons why 
wheat should be grown almost exclusively ; but we are 
convinced that those reasons are not now so strongly in 
force, and that there are other and strong reasons why 
our farmers should give greater attention to dairy prod- 
ucts and stock. 

" We do not object to the growing of wheat per se. 
It is one of our most valuable crops. When a proper 
rotation is pursued it can scarcely be dispensed with. 
What we do object to, is the great attention given to 
wheat-growing to the exclusion of other branches of 
farming which are as profitable as wheat-growing, or 
more so. As we said above, our farmers have a mania 
for growing wheat, a mania which they pursue to such 
an extent that their lands grow less and less fertile from 
year to year. Growing wheat as most Western farmers 
grow it, is a continual draught on the resources of the 
soil with no adequate return ; and however rich a soil 



198 



THE WHEAT CULTUHIST. 



may be at first, it will in time deteriorate under such 
usage. Clo\^er and plaster are the principal fertilizers 
on most wheat farms. When their nse is continued for 
a series of years, the farmers begin to complain that 
their land is ' clover-sick ' or ' plaster-sick ; ' that it 
will not give profitable returns. Land so treated will 
inevitably give out. It is every year deprived of many 
of its most valuable constituents in the crops of wheat 
which are taken off — constituents which are by no means 
fully returned in the fertilizers, clover and plaster. 
That our lands are losing their fertility, we see in the fact 
that they now produce less per acre than the naturally 
poorer soil of the Eastern States ; for in those States 
such an exhausting system of cropping is not pursued. 

I^ow by giving to wheat no more than its due share 
of attention, by keeping a large portion of land in 
meadow, and pasture, and root crops, and feeding the pro- 
duce to animals either for the dairy or the shambles, farm- 
ers will surely reap as large immediate retm'ns as when 
wheat is the main crop — and we believe much larger — 
and can, by aid of the large amount of manure which 
they will manufacture, keep their land in excellent con- 
dition." 

This is the key note to successful wheat-growing all 
over the world — ^raising stock, making beef, mutton, or 
pork, and applying rich manure to the soil. The sooner 
farmers become so thoroughly con vine 3d of this fact, 
the better it will be for their pockets, for the land, and 
for the whole country. It is exceedingly unfortunate to 
our country, that our valuable wheat fields, all over the 
land, are depleted and almost ruined by a bad system 
of farm management. Our successors will feel this slack 
cultivation. 



THE WHEAT CULTrEIST. 



199 



Fixk's Iros Cultivator. 

The accompanying figiii-e represents an excellent 
cultivator, recently invented by J. Pink, Baldwinsville, 
Onondaga Connty, X. T., which possesses many points 
of superior merit. The frame is made of ii*on, and the 
teeth are of superior steel. The implement possesses a 




Fig. 33. — Ftrik's Iron CultlTator. 



combination of desirable points, which constitute an 
efficient and convenient implement for cultivating 
summer fallows, winter fallows, for scarifying stubble 
ground, and dressing out crops in rows ; and besides this, 
many farmers think it the most etfeetive implement for 
digging potatoes that is now in use. Wliere there are 
more or less stumps, stubs, or rocks, to cultivate around 
and amono", a cultivator havino- handles will be found 
more convenient than one "without handles. 

The wings are so arranged, that tlie teeth can be made 
to cut a wide trough ; or they may be contracted so as 
to cut only a narrow strip, either deep or shallow. As 
the cut affords such an excellent idea of the implement, 
the foregoing verbal description will be sufficient to con- 
vey a fair imderstanding of its construction and opera- 
tion. 



200 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



Cultivating GRowma Wheat. 

It has been often suggested, that wheat would yield a 
much more abundant crop of grain, were the growing 
plants cultivated mth a horse-hoe and hand-tools. We 
have, however, no experiments to establish this point. 
On the contrary, judging from the habit of the wheat 
plant, I think that the less the soil is stirred after the 
wheat is put in, the better it will be for the growing 
crop. I will tell why. Every wheat plant sends out 
numerous roots near the surface of the ground. If we 
examine a stool of growing wheat on new land, when 
the surface is covered with a fine, vegetable mould, we 
shall find that there are more roots near the surface, than 
can be found several inches beneath the surface. Cut 
ofif those surface roots with a broad hoe, or with a 
harrow, or cultivator, and nature will at once appro- 
priate all the energies of the growing plants to form a 
new system of roots, near the surface. This^ fact teaches 
us that the growing wheat plants do not need root-prun- 
ing. If a horse-hoe, or hand-hoes be employed to cut 
up the surface of the ground between the rows, the sur- 
face, or coronal roots will be seriously mutilated, to the 
injury of the plants. I think that all good farmers and 
practical gardeners will coincide with me on this point, 
that after the seed has been put in, the surface of the 
soil should not be disturbed by implements of husbandry. 
If noxious weeds and grass spring up among the growing 
grain, let them be pulled up by hand, and laid between 
the rows, where they will subserve the purpose of a 
mulch to the wheat. Weeds may be pulled up, when 
they appear among the wheat ; but they should never 
be cut up with hoes. The soil should be so thoroughly 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



201 



prepared, that the growing wheat will outstrip the 
weeds, and maintain the ascendency until harvest time. 

It is contended by some writers, that the efficiency of 
the preparatory tillage is lost by the fine particles of 
the soil coalescing, or running together, thus forming a 
crust over the surface, which excludes the atmospheric 
supplies of nourishment to the roots of the growing 
plants. In numerous instances, particularly when the 
soil is very heavy, long before the crop has reached the 
period of perfect maturity, the soil will be found almost 
as impervious to water and as firm as it was before the 
ground was ploughed preparatory to sowing the seed. 
This is frequently the case. When carting the crop 
after harvest, the surface is sometimes so firm and in- 
durated, that the tracks of the teams and loaded wheels 
can scarcely be traced. Instead of cultivating the 
growing plants, prepare the soil as directed in the sec- 
ond volume of the Young Farmer's Manual, by the 
author, under the head of Keeping the Best Soil at the 
Surface. 



Haekowing WmTER Wheat. 

The practice of harrowing winter wheat in the spring 
of the year has been frequently recommended by some 
practical farmers and certain agricultural writers, while 
others have denounced this operation as productive of 
more injury than benefit to the growing plants. It is 
by no means difficult to explain why harrowing winter 
wheat in the spring may prove beneficial in one in- 
stance and not in another ; and it is easy to show when 
the young wheat plants may be benefited by harrow- 
ing and when a harrow would do far greater injury than 

9* 



202 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



good. When wheat is growing on a light and dry soil, 
where the seed was sowed broadcast and harrowed in, 
as many of the young plants would be found rooted 
near the surface, a harrowing would be liable to do 
greater injury by tearing up large numbers of such 
stools of wheat, than the scarifying of the land would 
benefit the crop. Again, when the seed has been put 
in with a grain drill, say two inches deep, and the sm*- 
face of the land seems to be covered with a hard crust 
of earth, a light harrowing, when the ground is suffi- 
ciently dry to be ^^loughed, would prove of great benefit 
to the young wheat plants. But the operation should 
be performed with a light harrow, having numerous 
small teeth, rather than with a heavy implement pro- 
vided with only a few large teeth. When winter wheat 
has been put in with a drill about two inches deep, all 
the primary roots will be found at that depth below the 
surface of the ground, until after the growing season of 
the succeeding spring has so far advanced as to produce 
a system of secondary roots near the surface of the 
ground. This fact suggests why winter wheat — if har- 
rowed at all — should be harrowed very early in the 
spring, before the growing season has commenced. The 
object of harrowing so early is twofold : one is to pul- 
verize the hard incrustation that has been formed on 
the surface, so that there may be a thin stratum of mel- 
low ground between the primary roots of the wheat 
plants and the surface, instead of a crust of calcareous 
earth, which is almost impenetrable by the secondary 
roots of the young plants. This would be eminently 
essential to the perfect growth and development of the 
wheat plant, were there no secondary roots to appear 
after the young plants have attained a growth of a foot 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



203 



or more in height. The second object of harrowing the 
soil is to form a mellow seed-bed at the sm^face of the 
ground, around each plant, through wdiich the second- 
ary roots may spread with facility, when that period in 
the growing season has arrived for the young plants to 
put forth their secondary roots. Roots of trees, bushes, 
vines, or roots of grass or plants that produce grain, 
spread with the utmost difficulty through clods, or a ha,rd 
crust of almost any kind of ground. But when there 
is a liberal supply of calcareous matter in the hard 
lumps, or crust of earth, roots will not spread through 
the soil in such a condition much sooner than they will 
enter soft stones. 

Still another object in harrowing winter wheat is to 
bury the grass-seed, or clover-seed, when the land is 
stocked down in the spriiig of the year. 

A few years ago, a correspondent of the " Cultiva- 
tor " wrote thus : " Myron Adams, of East Bloomfield, 
]^ew York, has for many years harrowed over the whole 
of his wheat fields every spring, pulverizing the crust 
and greatly benefiting the crop. If the ground is to 
be seeded with clover, it is harrowed in at this time. 
The whole amount torn up by the roots has been found 
by examination not to exceed the amount of a bushel 
on ten acres. The wheat looks rather unpromising 
when thus dusted over with earth ; but the first shower 
washes it off, and leaves it clean, fresh, and vigorous." 

Wheat on Sod Ground. 

Raising a crop of wheat on sod ground in some sec- 
tions of the country is practised with satisfactory success, 
while in most instances, all efforts to produce a fair crop 



204 



THE WHEAT CULTUBIST. 



of wheat on inverted sod have ended in complete fail- 
ures. In Monroe County, Y., one of the noted lo- 
calities for producing fair crops of winter wheat, many 
excellent farmers were accustomed to raise wheat on 
sod ground, by preparing the land in the following 
manner : 

About the first of September the sod is neatly plough- 
ed about eight inches deep, with a lap furrow, after 
which a roller is passed over it, when a thin coat of 
good barn-yard compost is spread evenly over the surface, 
and is either well harrowed in, or is turned under very 
shallowly with the gang-plows, which usually cut from 
three to four feet in width at one through. The 
wheat is then put in about the fifth or tenth of Sep- 
tember. 

It will be perceived by this system of management 
with the soil, that the surface of the seed-bed is prepared in 
exact accordance with the requirements of the habit of 
the wheat plant. Read the remarks under the head of 
the Habit of Wheat, on a preceding page. 

By passing a roller over the ploughed land, the furrow 
slices which lay up loosely, are pressed down firmly 
together. Then, by scarifying the sm^face with gang- 
ploughs, or cultivators, so as to pulverize the surface to 
the depth of about three or four inches, and fertilizing 
the surface with a rich compost, so that most of the roots 
will spread out horizontally, instead of striking down- 
ward vertically, the young plants will be well prepared 
to resist the sinister influences of the cold weather, which 
arise from the upheaval and settling back of the sm-face 
of the soil. 

But I would not, as a general rule, recommend the 
practice of attempting to raise wheat on sod ground, un- 



THE WHEAT CULTIJEIST. 



205 



less the land is very free from noxious weeds of all kinds, 
and grass that will not decay readily, and the soil in an 
excellent state of fertility. When the land is at all foul, 
and any kind of grass has taken possession of the soil 
-which will grow up after ploughing, before the wheat 
can come up, a farmer may about as well sow his seed 
wheat in a pastm-e field, with the expectation of growing 
a fair crop of grain. Wheat will not thrive at the same 
time where noxious grass flourishes. 



Sowing Wheat among Indian Cokn. 

In some parts of the West, where the soil is so fertile 
that farmers entertain the erroneous notion that its fer- 
tility is inexhaustible, the practice is in vogue of sowing 
seed wheat among the growing corn, and covering the 
seed with the horse-hoe and hand-hoes, in the latter part 
of summer, or even in September. A farmer writes to 
one of our Western papers, that " sowing wheat among 
standing corn is an excellent practice when done by 
competent workmen. The most successful plan will be 
found to plant the corn in rows five or six feet apart, 
and the hills in the rows two feet apart. The plough- 
ings, horse-hoeings, and dressing with the steel-tooth 
cultivator, will all require to be done in one direction 
across the field, and not in right-angular rows, as is the 
common practice; and before the wheat is sown, the 
ground should be made level with a steel-tooth cultivator 
or harrow. The time for seeding should be the last of 
August ; the quantity sown per acre, two bushels — and 
the seed should be ploughed in, putting the whole field 
into lands the width of the rows of corn. The stalks 
may remain on the ground during winter, and about 



206 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



the first of March be chopped down, and allowed to re- 
main on the surface." 

I perceive serious objections to this system of seeding. 
The first is, the great injury done to the growing corn, 
by the teeth of the tools and horse implements, which 
will tear up the roots of the corn, to the great injury of 
the crop. Indian corn needs no root-pruning. Horse- 
hoes cannot be employed between the rows after the 
plants have put out their tassels, without seriously in- 
juring the roots, which often extend two or three feet 
down the stems. Sowing seed wheat among growing 
corn may be well for the wheat plants, but it will be 
exceedingly injurious to the crop of Indian corn. 

Another consideration of some little account is this : 
When sowing wheat among growing corn, the large and 
broad leaves of the growing plants will gather many of 
the kernels, and thus prevent their falling to the ground 
in due time to take root before winter. And much of 
the grain would be destroyed by exposure to alternate 
wet and sunshine, while the kernels are lodged in the 
stems of corn. 

Sowing Wheat on Coen Stueble. 

The practice of sowing wheat on corn ground, in 
autumn, used to be more in vogue than it is at the 
present day. In the Middle and Eastern States, farm- 
ers were accustomed to sow winter wheat in autumn, 
after a crop of Indian corn had been removed ; but the 
practice is now nearly abandoned. A writer in the 
" Ohio Farmer" states, that " it is still the practice with 
a few farmers, on the rich lands of Ohio, and other 
States, to sow land to wheat in the fall, on which corn 



THE WHEAT CTILTUKIST. 



207 



has been grown the same season. A sod is turned over 
for corn, npon which manure is spread, if the land is 
not rich enough without it, and as soon as the corn is 
cut and stooked in the fall, the land is harrowed to 
level the corn rows, and the wheat is drilled in. The 
stooks of corn are placed in rows as far apart as pos- 
sible, and the drill runs close to them, lea^dng un- 
seeded the space occupied by the stooks, which are set 
in as straight rows as possible, so as to leave as little 
land unseeded as possible. The land is seeded down 
to such grasses as are desired at the same time the 
wheat is so^vn. 

"It is said that good crops of wheat are grown in 
this way, but only on lands that are in good fertility, 
and where the corn has been well cultivated. It saves 
one season in time, and one ploughing, whicli are objects 
of importance ; but the unseeded strips where the corn 
stooks are placed, make this system less satisfactory than 
it would be, if the entire field could be seeded down at 
once. The unseeded strips, however, may be harrowed 
early in the following spring, and seeded down to the 
same grasses that were sowed on other parts of the field, 
and after harvesting the wheat the entire field would be 
uniform." 

There is a plausible objection to sowing winter wheat 
after corn, where the crop of corn is not removed from 
the ground before the wheat is sowed, which is this : after 
the wheat has come up, the blades are exceedingly ten- 
der ; and by driving teams and wagons over the grow- 
ing plants to remove the grain and the stalks, and by 
the bruising and crushing of the leaves by the feet of 
laborers, when husking, the growing wheat is materially 
injured, so that the yield will be several bushels of grain 



208 



THE WHEAT CULTTBIST. 



less, per acre, than if tlie crop of corn had been removed 
before the seed was put it. 

Some farmers contend that diiving over growing 
wheat and treading the tops down in autumn, does 
not injm-e the growth of the plants. I will not occupy 
space, in these pages, to argue the case, to show that 
the poaching of the ground by the feet of heavy teams, 
the crushing of the leaves, which are the lungs of the 
young plants, with the loaded wheels, and the break- 
ing of the roots of the growing plants, all result in 
serious injury to the growing crop, for I hiow, that 
whatever mutilates the growing plants, must have an 
influence in retarding and diminishing the fructiflcation 
of the grain. The better way is, to defer sowing winter 
wheat ; and after the corn crop is removed, plough the 
land in late autumn, and sow spring wheat the next 
season, instead of winter wheat. I am satisfied that 
more grain can be raised by sowing spring wheat, than 
to try winter grain, and tread the tops half to death, 
while husking the corn and removing the stalks. 



Aldex's .Three-hoese Cultivatoe. 

This style of cultivator, which represents a wheel 
cultivator manufactured by Alden & Co., Auburn, 
^n". Y., is a strong, three-horse implement, extensively 
used in the wheat-growing sections of Xew Tork, Ohio, 
and Canada, for preparing ground for both winter and 
spring grain. It is a very strong implement ; and not 
very easily broken. The teeth consist of h'on standards 
bolted firmly, and braced secm^ely to the sills of the 
frame ; and the cutting edges of the teeth are made of 
plate steel, with a cutting edge on each end. After one 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



209 



end of the plates is worn out, the ends can be changed 
bj simply taking out a small bolt, which secures the 
plates to the cast-iron standards, and turning the dull 
ends upward. This arrangement provides an econom- 




FiG. 34.— Alden's Cultivator. 



ical tooth for such heavy cultivators. The teeth can be 
adjusted to run at any desired depth in a few seconds; 
and all the teeth and the frame can be elevated above 
the ground several inches, for convenient transportation. 

This cultivator is employed extensively by grain-grow- 
ing farmers for cultivating stubble ground after harvest, 
for the purpose of rooting up grass and young, noxious 
weeds, and covering the seeds of troublesome plants, 
so that they will readily vegetate, and thus facilitate 
future extermination. Besides this, the teeth can be 
put down so as to run six inches deep, thus pulverizing 
the entire ground quite as effectually as the work can 
be performed with a plough. 



210 



THE WHEAT OULTURIST. 



With three strong horses, or with a yoke of oxen and 
a span of horses attached to such a cultivator, which 
cuts a through four or five feet in width, one man will 
be able to prepare a number of acres in a day. The 
three-horse cultivator requires a strong and heavy team. 
I would advise a man to be jperfectly satisfied that he 
needs a three-horse cultivator before he orders one. 
But there is no danger that a two-horse cultivator will 
be too large and heavy. 

How TO Raise Wheat on a Poor Soil. 

I fancy that numerous readers will say : " J^ow, my 
land is poor, the soil thin and unfertile ; how may I 
raise a fair crop of wheat ? " Well, you can't expect 
to do it in one year, nor in two seasons. In order to 
bring poor land into the proper condition to give us 
good crops of wheat, we must adopt a better system of 
culture. The land must be worked to a greater depth, 
be more thoroughly pulverized, and have suitable fer- 
tilizing material liberally applied. Where necessary, 
the surface must be underdrained to the better warming, 
draining, and aerification of the soil. When we ac- 
complish this, we shall find that as good crops will be 
realized as in former days ; and those destructive insect 
enemies, which are the dread of all wheat-growers, will 
be defeated, especially where we adopt a system of ro- 
tation, raising crops for feeding stock, and manuring 
with especial reference to this crop, and growing from 
a less area a greater amount of grain or other crops. 
We must adopt an alternation of growing the cereals 
with the leguminous and root crops, and feed them out, 
applying the manure made therefrom to the soil. Such 



THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



211 



crops should be raised for feeding as will furnish the 
elements for the richest manure, such manures being 
found the most economical for application to the soil. 
It will scarcely be necessary to say that wheat may 
be grown on a variety of soils, as there exists a great 
diversity over the region in which it is a leading 
crop. 

Farmers all over 'New England may just as well raise 
their own wheat as to purchase their flour at such an 
extortionate price ; and often be so scandalously imposed 
on by those who sell a poor article for a large price. 
The whole system of wheat growing may all be summed 
up in a few words, namely : Cultivate well^ and manure 
tountifully. Usually the best preparation of the land 
for wheat, is a dressing of rich, well-rotted, or com- 
posted, barn-yard manure. Unrotted manure tends to 
produce a heavy growth of straw, which will be liable 
to rust, and yield less grain. The best practice is to 
apply it late in autumn, simply harrowing it in after 
the land has been well ploughed. By spring it is well 
decomposed. Where it is desirable to apply the manure 
in the spring, scrape the hog-yard for it with broad 
hoes, and use heaps of fine manure previously collected ; 
and if the soil be compact and heavy, add well-rotted 
chip manure. On soils in which there is a great amount 
of vegetable matter, never apply any barn-yard manure, 
unless it has been thoroughly composted or rotted. On 
land where there is usually a great growth of straw, 
wood ashes, either leached or unleached, applied in lib- 
eral quantities, will have an excellent influence in pro- 
ducing a bountiful crop of grain. After ten years of 
thorough cultivation and manuring, the heavy crops 
of wheat will appear. 



212 



THE WHEAT CIJLTIJEIST. 



Rough versus Smooth Wheat Fields. 

Many of our best farmers have of late been accus- 
tomed to contend, tliat the rougher the surface of the 
ground, where winter wheat is growing, can be left after 
the seed is put in, the more advantageous the rough 
land will be to the growing plants in protecting them 
from the seventy of the winter. The " Western Eural " 
states that " Every experienced grower of wheat knows 
that this rule is more frequently disregarded than it is 
observed. A moderately rough surface in the wheat 
£eld has many advantages over a smooth one ; for in- 
stance, it keeps snow from being blown away, and thus 
affords protection to the young plants from the alternate 
thawing and freezing which is so destructive to their 
vitality. In spring, after the snow has disappeared, the 
rough surface affords shelter to the plants from the cold 
wdnds which prevail during the early part of that sea- 
son. In every wheat field may be seen in spring, plants 
growing in little hollows, sheltered by lumps or banks 
from the cold wind, but enjoying the benefit of the sun's 
rays. The difference between the growth of these plants 
and others which have not the benefit of shelter, is re- 
markable. Smooth, level surfaces are liable to become 
a mass of soft mud, when the spring thaws take the frost 
out of the ground, and much wheat on smooth surfaces 
is heaved out by the sudden change from frosty to mild 
weather. It need scarcely be stated that a surface may 
be too rough and lumpy, as well as too smooth and 
level. A mean between the extremes of roughness and 
smoothness is the best state of the soil for the wheat 
crop." A proper preparation of the soil will be found 
more satisfactory than a rough surface. 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



213 



GEOwmG Winter Wheat on Clover Sod. 

Different management is required to raise winter 
wheat on red clover sod, than is necessary for spring 
wheat. There is one great error to be avoided in pre- 
paring the ground, which is, turning all the mould, 
clover-stalks, and vegetable matter, eight or ten inches 
below the sm'face. This is the usual j)ractice ; but it is 
decidedly wrong for winter grain. The dense growth 
of the clover has exerted a very ameliorating influence 
on the surface of the soil, simply by shading it, to say 
nothing of the direct fertilization by means of its large 
roots and decayed straw. This nicely pulverized soil 
at the very surface, and all the vegetable matter af- 
forded by the decay of the clover, needs to be kept near 
the surface of the ground, where it will promote the 
growth of the young wheat plants before winter. The 
leading idea is to perform the ploughing in such a man- 
ner, that whatever fertihzers may aid the growth of the 
wheat before winter, whether it be in the form of de- 
cayed clover, or barn-yard manure, the whole may be 
within three or four inches of the surface, so that all the 
roots of the wheat will be spread out, making a com- 
plete mat in a shallow stratum of soil. 

The best soil must be kept on the surface. A thin 
coat of well-rotted barn-yard manure should be ploughed 
under, in connection with the clover-stalks, not deeper 
than just specified ; and the subsoil plough should fol- 
low the common plough, in every furrow. Twice in 
each furrow is much better than once. See how to sub- 
soil, with illustration of a subsoil plough on a previous 
page, and also in second volume of my Young Farm- 
er's Manual. 



214 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



The " Cultivator and Country Gentleman " sajs : 

" Sowing wheat on a good clean clover lea is undoubt- 
edly the best course to pursue, as nearly all the benefits 
of a clover crop for the season, except for growing seed, 
or for fall feed, may be had before it is taken for wheat. 
The best piece of wheat in this section is on a clover 
sod turned over and sown within ten days after plough- 
ing. But farmers will not generally have such a clover 
sod to spare, until they come into the practice of seed- 
ing to clover with spring crops, instead of ploughing 
under the stubble and sowing wheat." 

Joseph Harris, Editor of the " Genesee Farmer," 
Rochester, 'New York, writes in relation to raising wheat 
on clover sod, that : 

" In England, wheat is generally sown on a one or 
two year old clover sod, the land being ploughed imme- 
diately before sowing. As a general rule, this practice 
does not succeed here, because, for one reason, we sow a 
month earlier than they do in England, and a clover 
field ploughed here the last of August is generally so 
dry that the seed wheat does not germinate evenly ; and 
it is found, too, that the wheat is overrun with weeds 
and grass the next season. I think, however, if our 
land were cleaned the way it should be before it is 
seeded to clover, and eaten down by sheep during the 
summer, wheat might be raised here with one plough- 
ing, as in England, especially if we used a little Peru- 
vian guano at the time of sowing. In Western New 
York, mannre is seldom applied directly to wheat ; some 
say it is injurious. But I apprehend that, on most 
farms, the wheat would be very grateful for a little good, 
well-rotted manure, either ploughed in or spread on the 
surface just before sowing. Wheat needs something to 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



215 



give it a good start in the fall, and a little well -rotted 
manure, not ploughed in deep, would be very accepta- 
ble. A dressing of Peruvian guano, say one hundred 
and fifty pounds to three hundred pounds to the acre, 
would perhaps be better still. It will pay if we get one 
dollar and fifty cents per bushel for wheat. At one dol- 
lar per bushel the profits from the use of guano will be 
very slight, and may be on the wrong side of the 
ledger. 

" Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, seldom does any good 
on wheat in Western 'New York, although it has a very 
good effect on clover, and sometimes on peas. Some 
good farmers sow a bushel of plaster (gypsum) per acre, 
on the wheat in the spring ; but it is done, not to ben- 
efit the wheat, but for its effect on the clover sown with 
the wheat." 

Ploughing in Clover foe Wheat. 

Clover is an excellent crop to precede wheat. The 
heaviest crops of wheat I ever succeeded in raising, were 
sown on clover sward. In ploughing under clover I prefer 
waiting until it has perfectly matured. Many prefer 
ploughing when it is in full bloom, but this does not 
coincide with my experience. It is true that there is 
apparently a greater amount of vegetable matter upon 
the ground at the time of flowering, but it is too sappy, 
and disappears very soon after being turned under, in 
consequence of a too rapid fermentation taking place. 

The objection may be raised to ploughing down a 
crop of clover, that it is an expensive mode of manuring ; 
but this, T think, is incorrect ; for the expense should 
not be counted at a higher figure than the interest on 



216 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



the cost of tlie land, with the vahie of the clover seed 
added ; and it is impossible to manure as cheaply and 
at the same time as effectually in any other manner. 

Thaer, in his work on the Principles of Agriculture, 
after enumerating a number of crops suitable to be 
grown before wheat, concludes by saying, " Lastly, the 
best way of obtaining good crops of wheat, is to sow the 
grain on broken-up clover land ; " and he further recom- 
mends that the clover should be ploughed a month pre- 
vious to sowing the wheat. The recommendation coin- 
cides with the practice of many of the best farmers in 
England, who prefer sowing wheat on a stale furrow, 
under the impression that land which has become some- 
what compact in consequence of having had time to settle, 
is more congenial to the growth of wheat, than that which 
has been recently ploughed. It is also thought important 
not to have the ground too finely pulverized, as the grain 
is supposed to stand the winter better when the land is 
somewhat cloddy on the surface. This is also the opinion 
of many of the most successful wheat-growers in the in- 
terior of this State, and it also coincides with my own 
experience. The reason for preferring a cloddy surface 
is, that it does not so readily form a crust after showers, 
and the clods, as they crumble to pieces during the 
winter and spring, supply fresh, mellow earth to the 
roots of the plants. — J. Harris. 



MANTJRINa THE SuRFACE FOR WlNTER "WhE V T, 

In preference to mingling the manure thoroughly with 
the soil, as deep as it is ploughed. By ploughing the soil 
to a good depth once, and by working only a few inches 
in depth of the surface — rendering it fine and mellow — 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



217 



and by spreading finely pulverized compost on the sur- 
face, and simply harrowing it in about the time the 
grain is sowed or drilled in, the roots, for the most part, 
will strike out horizontally, or nearly so, and will be- 
come so tlioroughly interwoven with each other near the 
surface, that they are not drawn out at the surface, as 
they are when they strike down nearly vertically ; but 
the entire soil rises and settles back in the same manner 
as sod ground does, without heaving out the plants. 

I have made particular inquiry of those farmers who 
have adopted the practice of manuring on the surface, 
in every locality where I have travelled during the past 
season, and I have found that in most instances they are 
satisfied that winter grain will not sufifer so much injury 
from freezing and thawing, when the manure is well 
rotted and spread thin on the surface, and harrowed in 
about the time when the grain is put in, as it will if the 
manure is ploughed under. 

Growing wheat on clover lay is practiced in many in- 
stances.' When the clover is in full bloom it is turned 
under with the furrow about six or seven inches in depth, 
during the latter part of July ; and if the clover is the 
large kind, which is considered preferable, it is not 
ploughed in until the former part of August. Of course, 
circumstances will determine the most proper time for 
ploughing it under. If the clover is pastured for several 
weeks in the spring, it will not have attained its full 
growth until after the middle of summer has passed. 

If the ploughman be expert, and can turn a well pro- 
portioned furrow, and make his work uniform, one 
ploughing for a clover sod is sufiicient. But it should be 
done one month before sowing, to impart to the surface 
a suitable mellow condition for the seed, and also that 

10 



218 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



portions of the sod may break up and remain on the sur- 
face, by the action of the seed harrows, thus securing the 
same object sought by the second ploughing. 

Eaising Wheat on MrcErr Soils. 

In many places, where a black, mucky soil, several 
inches deep, rests on a heavy subsoil, by turning up two 
or three inches of the latter in autmnn, and mingling it 
thoroughly with the soil, di'aining if necessary, and ma- 
nuring, a very good wheat soil may be formed in a few 
years. Where the muck is so deep that the clayey sub- 
soil cannot be reached with a plough, and clay can be 
obtained within a distance of half a mile, it will pay to 
apply eighty or a hundi'ed loads per acre. The best 
time to spread it is late in autumn, or in winter, that it 
may be acted upon by rains and frosts. Still, if applied 
in the sj)ring, and ploughed in, the effect will be good 
on the crop the same year. Portions of fields frequently 
are very heavy, while other portions are composed, for 
the most part, of vegetable mould. The practice of the 
wi'iter has been to haul mucky soil and spread it on the 
heavy clay; and in all cases, the application has pro- 
duced an equal, or better effect for wheat, than a liberal 
application of good barn-yard manure. As there is a 
great difference in muck, this might not always be the 
case. Compact, heavy soils contain a large amount of 
wheat-producing material ; but they need to be made 
light and porous, so that the roots of the wheat plants 
can permeate the entu'e soil as deeply as it has been 
pulverized. 

Qn some kinds of soil, a di^essing of muck will exert a 
marvellous influence in producing a heavy crop. Yet, 



THE WHEAT CTJLTURIST. 



219 



on some kinds of land, it will not pay to cart muck for- 
ty rods. Experiments must be made, to determine 
when muck will operate as a valuable fertilizer, and when 
it will not. 

The very act of exposure of this swamp muck, has 
caused an evolution of carbonic acid gas : that decom- 
poses the silicates of potash in the sand ; the potash con- 
verts the insoluble into soluble manure, and lo ! a crop. 
The growing crop adds its power to the geine. If all the 
long series of experiments under Yon Yoght, in Ger- 
many, are to be believed, confirmed as they are by re- 
peated trials by our own agriculturists, it is not to be 
doubted, that every inch of every small knoll, on every 
farm, may be changed into a soil in thirteen years, of 
half the number of inches of good mould. 

Manuring Sandy Soils foe Wheat. 

In the summer of 1867, 1 was exploring certain parts 
of South Jersey, at Weymouth ; and I found on the 
farm of Mr. S. Colwell, that excellent crops of wheat 
had been growing on light, sandy loam soils, where a 
man could paw a hole a foot deep with the heel of his 
boot, with little difficulty. Mr. Colwell stated that 
his system of management was as follows, in preparing 
the ground for the crop just alluded to : A liberal dress- 
ing of barn-yard manure and muck was applied to the 
land, ploughed in, and Indian corn planted. The next 
season Indian corn was sowed for feeding domestic 
animals. In autumn the ground was ploughed and 
winter wheat drilled in. As nature has made abundant 
provision for the draining of the cultivable fields in this 
part of the State, the freezing and thawing of the soil 



220 



THE WHEAT CULTTIBIST. 



during the winter months, does but very little injury 
to the growing wheat. On such light, loamy ground, 
which never requires under-draining, spring wheat can 
be produced with much more profit than winter grain, 
if the seed be put in at the very beginning of the growing 
season. If such light loam be top-dressed with clay not 
more than half an inch in depth, the argillaceous ma- 
terial in the dressing will impart a firmness to the light 
land, which is eminently essential for the production of 
a bountiful yield of this kind of grain. When a dress- 
ing of clay is apjDlied to such loamy ground, or to a soil 
where light, black muck is the predominant character- 
istic, it can be carted during the winter months, when 
laborers and teams can find but little employment. In. 
some localities the clay can be hauled on a sliding 
vehicle and spread on the snow. Should the clay be 
distributed in clods weighing eight or more pounds each, 
two or three frosts and showers of rain will usually dis- 
solve the lumps, so that, when partially dry, the clay 
may be spread evenly with shovels, and* afterward har- 
rowed into the soil, or mingled with the surface soil by 
a two-horse wheel cultivator, which some wheat-growers 
prefer to a plough for preparing the ground for a crop 
of wheat, after the field has been thoroughly ploughed. 
A dressing of marl, or muck, on such land, in addition 
to the clay, cannot fail to produce a bountiful yield of 
wheat, or of almost any other cereal grain. Farmers 
who make and apply large quantities of compost, such 
as Mr. Colwell is accustomed to prepare for his fields, 
find that they can grow excellent crops of wheat, even 
on our lightest loams. But the fertilizers applied to 
light soils should be rich in grain-producing material, 
and covered with a cultivator, rather than ploughed in. 



THE WHEAT CrLTHRIST. 



221 



Wheat on Light SAm)T Loam. 

In order to raise a fair crop of wheat on sandy loam 
soils, it becomes necessary to exercise no little judgment 
in preparing the soil in the best manner for this kind of 
grain. The element lacking mostly is alumina, which 
is found in the loam. In many instances, the sandy loam 
is only four to eight or ten inches in depth, resting on a 
deep stratum of excellent yellow-clay loam. By bring- 
ing up two or thi'ee inches in depth of this yellow-clay 
loam, and mingling it with the fine sandy loam on the 
surface, a fine seed-bed will be prepared for wheat. 
Then, by adopting a rotation of crops, such as Indian 
corn one season, oats or barley, potatoes and turnips, 
and red clover one or two seasons, with a dressiDg of 
rich sheep manm^e, a bountiful crop of fine wheat can 
be raised with little difficulty. 

On certain fields, the sandy loam is sometimes so deep 
that it will not be practicable to reach the substratum 
of clay loam with a common plough, or even with a sub- 
soil plough. But bear in mind the suggestion, that the 
sandy loam requires a little clay to give the soil solidity 
and firmness. The correct mode of procedure in such 
instances, is, to plough the sandy loam in late autumn, 
turn under a coat of red clover if convenient, or a thin 
dressing of compost, or both, unless the soil is unusually 
fertile ; then when the ground is frozen, cart or haul on 
muck and clay, and spread it thin over the entire field. 
Fifty two-horse loads of muck, and fifty more two-horse 
loads of pure clay, or heavy clay loam transported from 
some distant clay-bed, and spread evenly in the winter, 
would make a seed-bed for wheat of fine tilth, which 
could scarcely fail to render a light sandy loam eminently 



222 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTIRIST. 



productive. In the spring, let the ground be thoroughly 
harrowed, or scarified with a two-horse cultivator, with- 
out ploughing ; and wheat will grow heavy and stand up 
remarkably well. 

An important consideration is to be able to cart the 
clay and muck in the winter, when teams and vehicles 
will not pack the mellow seed-bed ; and also when the 
labors of the field are not urgent. It is seldom con- 
venient to perform this kind of work during the growing 
season. Besides this, one grand point to be secured is, 
the ameliorating influence of the freezing and thawing 
of the clay, by which coarse clods are all reduced to a 
fine tilth. When teams and laborers have but httle to 
do, time can be very profitably employed in carting 
earth to top-dress wheat fields. The di^essing of clay, or 
clay loam, will render the soil more productive for other 
kinds of grain and grass, also as well as for wheat. 

Seeding wtthout PLorGHma. 

Light soils are frequently ploughed to their serious 
injury, for a crop of wheat. My father and his neigh- 
bors as well as myself, have raised the most bountiful 
crops of wheat, that any of us ever produced, on land 
that was simply harrowed thoroughly. We were all 
satisfied that the crops were much heavier than they 
would have been had the ground been ploughed. I 
have in mind numerous instances, in 'New Jersey, in 
which the soil was a deep light loam, covered with a 
very thin mould, where all the vegetable matter was 
turned six inches below the surface. The result was, 
that the crop of grain was amazingly light ; whereas, had 
the ground simply been worked with a wheel cultivator, 



THE WHEAT CULTTTRIST, 



223 



or harrowed thoroHghlY, the crop would have been much 
heavier, with half the labor. Were I to manage the 
light, sandy loam soils of the United States, where the 
surface soil and the subsoil are not compact, I should 
seldom use a plough in preparing the ground for any 
kind of crop. Such a cultivator as is illustrated on 
page 142, would be a far more satisfactory implement for 
preparing the soil for wheat, or for any other crop, than 
a plough. The object is to keep the best soil at the 
surface. With a cultivator, it can be readily done. But 
with a plough, the fertile mould is worked downward 
farther and farther beneath the surface. 

Of all soils to be cultivated, or to be restored, none 
are preferable to the sandy light soils. By their porous- 
ness, free access is given to the powerful effects of the 
air. They are natural in that state, to which trenching, 
draining, and subsoil ploughing are reducing the stiffer 
lands of England. Manui'e may as well be thi-own into 
water, as on land underlaid by water. Drain this, and 
no matter if the upper soil be almost quicksand, manure 
will convert it into fertile, arable land. The thin cover- 
ing of mould, scarcely an inch in thickness, the product 
of a century, may be imitated by studying the laws of 
its formation. This is the work of " I^'ature's apprentice 
hand ; " man has long been her journeyman, and now 
guided by science, the farmer becomes the master work- 
man, and may produce in one year quite as much as the 
apprentice made in seven. 

Pasttjking Wheat, in AuTraiN" oe Winter. 

Many years ago, we used to see it recommended in 
agricultural papers, to pasture off wheat in late 



224: 



THE WHEAT CTTLTUEIST. 



autumn." But for more than twenty years past, in 
which these observations and inquiries have been made 
on this subject, I have not met with a single instance 
which aiForded any assurance that the practice is at all 
beneficial. On the contrary, everything argues against 
it. Yegetable physiology is against it, because the 
leaves of plants are their lungs. Therefore, if they be 
cropped ofi*, the growth will be checked. And if the 
growth be checked in late autumn, the plants cannot 
endure the severity of the cold in winter. Scientific 
agriculture is decidedly against it ; because every good 
wheat-grower knows how important it is that the young 
wheat plants should become firmly rooted before winter 
sets in, so that they may not be lifted out so readilj^, and 
that they should acquire a large growth, for the purpose 
of mulching the soil in cold weather. The practice also 
of our best wheat-growers has jproved it to be a very 
wrong system of management ; and no good farmer who 
has tried it once or twice, will be induced to practise it 
again. 

My own experience has always been, that the larger 
the leaves of wheat are allowed to grow, the more they 
will mulch the ground, the firmer the plants will be 
rooted, and the more efiectually they will resist the in- 
fluences of intense cold, and of alternate freezing and 
thawing, not only during the winter, but in the spring. 

If animals of any kind be allowed to crop off the 
growing plants, their teeth often sever the tender 
stems close to the ground. Thus the crowns of the 
growing plants will be exposed to the influences of the 
weather, and in many instances effectually killed. Be- 
sides this, heavy animals will injure the roots of large 
numbers of the stools, by treading on the plants where 



THE WHEAT CTILTTIRTST. 



225 



the ground is soft. The great injury done to the plants 
by the feet of animals will often cause more damage to 
the wheat than the injury arising from crop^Ding off the 
stems with their teeth. 

Pasturing wheat is not to be commended under 
any circumstances. If there is too large a growth of 
leaves and stems, let the seed be put in later in the 
season, rather than to pasture the wheat with any kind 
of stock. 

MrLCHIXG- "WlXTEE GeAIX. 

Every observing farmer knows that in autumn, or 
winter, soil that is entirely bare will freeze up solid, 
while that in meadows, or pastm-e fields, will not be 
frozen at all. Xow, Avhy is it so ? TThy will the beaten 
track of the highway be frozen up solid enough to bear 
a loaded wagon, while the grassy sides may be ploughed 
or spaded ? 

Again : when a portion of a field is covered with a 
thick coat of grass or clover that has not been fed off 
nor mowed, why will such soil remain unfrozen, except 
in very cold weather ? Because the coat of grass pre- 
vents the rapid radiation of heat from the surface of the 
earth. A soil that is bare, or nearly so, radiates heat 
very rapidly dm-ing the cold nights of winter ; and it 
will freeze much deeper than if protected by some^ 
mulching material that will check the rapid radiation 
of heat from the surface. 

Those farmers who have turned their attention to 
this subject, cannot have failed to notice how much 
more red clover is lifted out in pastm^es that have been 
fed off close in late autumn than where the surface is 

10* 



226 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJRIST. 



.protected by a good coat of stems and leaves. And the 
same is true of winter wheat. Wherever it has been 
covered dm^ing most of the winter with snow it will 
not be lifted out, nor winter-killed very much, if at all. 
But, when the seed was sowed late in autumn, and the 
leaves have made only a short growth, the soil will 
freeze very deep and the ground will be many degrees 
colder where the roots of the wheat are than if the sur- 
face were protected. Where there is a thick coating of 
the leaves of wheat, or straw, over the surface, the 
plants will be injured but little. 

Intense cold injures the wheat plants in two ways. 
One is, by lifting them out of their bed, and severing 
the roots ; and another, by severe chilling, just as the 
buds of peach trees are injured by intense cold. There- 
fore, the more we can protect the wheat plants from 
piercing winds and intense cold, the better crops of 
grain we may expect to raise. When wheat was sowed 
so late in the fall that the leaves do not cover the sur- 
face of the ground, it will be an excellent protection to 
spread straw over the entire field, as soon as the seed is 
put in the ground, and let the wheat plants come up 
through the straw. But great care must be exercised 
in spreading it, lest it be applied so thick as to smother 
the plants. A covering half an inch thick, where the 
ground is not excessively wet, will be found an excel- 
lent protection on those fields that are not shielded from 
the cold winds by a forest, belt of trees, or an elevation 
of the ground. But, a coat of straw will not prevent 
wheat being lifted out by the frost on wet ground. If 
the straw were worked into manure, by fat sheep or fat 
cattle, and covered with a cultivator, the effect would 
be more satisfactory. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTURIST. 



227 



Salt for Wheat. 

Although my own experience is not in favor of the 
application of salt to growing wheat, or to the soil 
where wheat was sowed, I have reason to believe that, on 
some hinds of soil, a dressing of salt has been, and may- 
be again, of great value to the growing crop. Yet, as 
a general rule, I think salt will exert such a trivial in- 
fluence on the productiveness of the land, that the small 
increase will not defray the expense of purchasing and 
sowing four to eight bushels of salt per acre. The only 
reliable way to satisfy any one on this point is by exper- 
iment. If alternate strips be dressed with salt ; and 
the straw keeps erect better, or the yield of grain should 
prove to be heavier than where no salt is applied, no 
more reliable proof will be required, to establish the 
value of salt as a fertilizer. 

Many farmers will insist that a dressing of salt will 
exterminate, or prevent the ravages of the wire-worm. 
But I do not believe that one hundred bushels of salt 
on an acre will have the least influence in repelling 
wire-worms, cut-worms, or any other worms, as the ex- 
ceedingly small quanity that would come in contact with 
the whereabouts of such worms, would not destroy vege- 
tation of any kind. 

J. J. Mechi states that he knew a farmer in ITorth- 
amptonshire, whose wheat crops could scarcely ever be 
kept from lodging, until he sowed a liberal dressing of 
salt in his fields. He even went so far as to salt the 
manure in his yards. He says it is a most singular fact, 
that while salt tends to preserve animal substances, it 
will decompose vegetable matter quite rapidly. 

Every farmer must test the efficacy of salt on his own 



228 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



soil, if he would learn its value ; for salt has been em- 
ployed so extensively as a fertilizer, with no apparent 
effect, that it is useless to recommend it, unless a farmer 
is satisfied that an application of it will pay. AYe 
Icnow a dressing of manure will pay. ^sow if a farmer 
has such assurance that salt sowed on land will pay, I 
recommend a liberal dressing of salt on such land. 

Chaecoal Dust as a Peetilizek. 

Charcoal is composed almost entirely of pm-e carbon ; 
and when small fragments are exposed to the influences 
of the weather, they undergo very little change during 
a long term of years. Still the roots of growing plants 
will lay hold of the small pieces of charcoal, and appro- 
priate the substance contained in the coal to the growth 
and development of the stems, leaves, and seeds of grain, 
fruit, and vegetables. 

Experienced chemists assure us, charcoal, and particu- 
larly charcoal dust, has the power of attracting and 
fixing large quantities of ammonia, a substance which 
enters largely into the formation of useful plants, and 
of retaining this fei'tilizing material when buried in the 
soil, until the fine fibres of the roots of growing plants 
require it for promoting their growth. Charcoal has the 
power of attracting and retaining other gaseous substan- 
ces besides ammonia, which are highly beneficial to 
growing wheat plants, as well as grass, vines, trees, and 
shrubs. 

Every observing farmer who has been accustomed to 
raise wheat cannot have failed to notice the luxuriant 
growth of cereal grain round about the places where 
charcoal has been burned, even more than thirty or forty 



THE WHEAT CrXTTTRIST. 



229 



years ago. The growing stems of wheat that are pro- 
dnced on such old charcoal-beds ai'e seldom affected 
with rnst : and besides this, the straw is always much 
stiffer than that which grows where there is not a dress- 
ing of charcoal. Before chai'coal can promote the growth 
of plants of any kind, the panicles mnst be thoronghly 
decomposed, and rednced to a liquid condition. For this 
reason, previous to the application of charcoal dnst as a 
fertilizer to any hind of soil, the coal shonld be run 
through a mill that will reduce the small pieces to fine 
powder. And even when charcoal is thns finely com- 
minuted by some mechanical means, the action of the 
fei*tilizin^ matter on veojetation will be verv slow. 

It is said that charcoal possesses the power of ab- 
sorbing ninety times its own weight of ammoniac al 
gases. This fact suggests that charcoal dust, which 
may be procm'ed in large quantities, at simply the ex- 
pense of cai'ting, in and around many of our populous 
cities, should be scattered in the stables of domestic 
animals, after having been ground very fine, where it 
will absorb large quantities of the choicest fertilizing 
material, which, if mingled with the soil, would impart 
a rich store of pabulum to the roots of growing crops. 
But whether a farmer would be warranted in purchas- 
ing charcoal, gi-inding it to powder, scattering it in his 
stables, and applying it the soil, is a question that can be 
decided satisfactorily, only by well-conducted experi- 
ments. The probability, however, is that it would not 
pay, for the reason that the decomposition of the fracr- 
ments of the coal would be so exceedingly slow, from 
yeai* to year, that the beneficial effect would not be a fair 
equivalent for the expense incun-ed. Where a farmer 
can procure charcoal dust for the carting, he can well 



230 



THE WHEAT CrXTTEIST. 



afford to haul it two or more miles for the purpose of 
applying it to certain kinds of soil. 

"Where the soil is deep, mellow, vegetable, black loam, 
or muck, it would not pay to cart charcoal dust to apply 
as a fertilizer, because there is an abundance of carbon- 
aceous material already in the soil. But where the soil 
consists chiefly of a sandy loam, a gravelly loam, or is a 
heavy soil of any character, it vnll pay to cart charcoal 
dust to mingle with stable manure, to be applied to the 
soil where cereal grain, in particular, or grass, or any 
other crops, are to be produced. 

As to the proper quantity of charcoal dust to be ap- 
plied to an acre, there is no rule for determining how 
much may be used with profit. There is no danger, 
however, of applying too much. The larger the quan- 
tity the better. On those soils where charcoal dust will 
not be of any advantage to growing crops, a bountiful 
di'essing will exert no injurious influence. The larger 
the quantity spread around all kinds of fruit trees, the 
smoother and fairer the fruit will be. 

In many fields where cereal grain is grown, the old 
coal-pit beds should be carted and spread on those parts 
of the field that are not rich in carbonaceous material. 
Charcoal dust, finely pulverized, is an excellent material 
to mingle with the soil where fruit trees of any kind are 
being transplanted. From five to ten bushels per tree 
would be a liberal di'essing. For an immediate fertiliz- 
ing effect on the growing crops of almost any kind of 
soil, it would be more satisfactory to reduce the coal to 
ashes, and sow what remains, broadcast over the field, 
while plants of grain or grass are young and tender, 
as wood ashes are an excellent material for grain and 
grass, trees and flowers, fruits and vegetables of all kinds. 



THE WHEAT CHLTTTIIST. 



231 



R. Ranson, Ashtabula County, OMo, writes, touching- 
pulverized charcoal, as follows : ''I tried another experi- 
ment in 1860. My lands are coarse or loose gravel of 
rather poor quality. I sowed an acre of winter wheat 
(the blue-stem) preparing my ground as follows : 

" The field was sown with barley in the spring pre- 
vious ; yield small (eighteen bushels per acre). I turned in 
the stubble the last week in August, harrowed it over, then 
took about eighteen bushels charcoal crushed fine, and 
top-dressed a strip through the middle of the acre over 
about one-third of its length ; I then sowed on my 
wheat broadcast and harrowed it over twice. The 
result was, the heads when ripe were at least twice as 
long as where no coal was put on. I harvested all 
together ; the yield was forty-three bushels. I think 
hy applying about fifty bushels of coal to the acre 
as a top-dressing, made fine by grinding in a common 
bark mill, it would increase the yield at least fom- hun- 
dred per cent., if the soil is poor. 

"He further states he used burned clay and ashes 
in the fall of 1860, at the rate of about one hundred 
bushels of burned clay, taken from a fallow where tim- 
ber had been uprooted several years by heavy winds. 
The soil on which the timber grew was burned together 
with the old roots and clay entwined, and perhaps some 
muck ; the whole, ashes, clay and muck, after being 
burned as above, were hauled off in a wagon and put 
upon the wheat field as a top-dressing, and harrowed in 
with the wheat. The land was poor quality of gravel ; 
the yield was about five hundred per cent, over the re- 
mainder of the field where no clay was put. I think 
there is no fertilizer ahead of this as a top-dresser." See 
Mixiag Soils, second volume of Young Farmer's Manual. 



232 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



Holbrook's Deep-Tiller Plough. 

The figure of a plough shown in this place, represents 
a " deep-tiller " plough, which has been recently invented 
by Governor Holbrook, of Massachusetts, and manufac- 
tured by F. F. Holbrook, Boston. The form of the mold- 
board is such as is required for deep ploughing. When 




Fig. 35.— Holbrook's Stubble Plough. 

ploughing stubble, farmers frequently desire to plough 
narrow furrows, ten to twelve inches deep. With most 
of the ploughs, it is extremely difficult to plough more 
than eight inches in depth; and scores of ploughs are 
not properly constructed for ploughing over five or six 
inches in depth. 

I have devoted a vast deal of thought to the proper 
construction of the mold-boards of ploughs, both for 
deep and for shallow ploughing ; and it afibrds me satis- 
faction to record in this place, a tribute of superior 
merit to this plough, which is exactly the implement 
required in numerous sections of the country, where it 



THE WHEAT CULTHBIST. 



233 



is desirable to bring up a little of the rich, clay loam to 
the surface, to be mingled with the light soil or vegetable 
moiild. In ISTew Jersey, as well as in other States, the 
soil, in many sections of the country, consists of a light, 
sandy loam, resting on a fertile, clay-loam subsoil, 
about ten or twelve inches below the sm^face. For 
almost all kinds of crops, especially for wheat and 
other cereal grain, it is important to turn up a few 
inches in depth of this subsoil. With a common plough 
it is difficult to do it. But with one of Governor 
Holbrook's deep-tiller ploughs, one span of horses will 
open a ftuTow twelve inches deep, and continue to 
plough at that depth, provided the plough is adjusted * 
to cut only five or six inches wide. Eead the chapter 
on Ploughs and Ploughing, in both volumes of my 
Young Farmer's Manual. 

Holbeook's Pight axd Leit Plough. 

The accompanying illustration of a plough represents 
a style of ploughs manufactm-ed by F. F. Holbrook, 
Boston, Massachusetts, which are gaining favor among 
farmers, on account of their convenience in enabling a 
ploughman to commence on one side of a field, and 
plough back and forth, until the field is finished. By this 
manner of ploughing, the entii-e field can be finished 
without a dead farrow. Besides this, the sm-face of the 
land is kept level, which is not the case when ground 
is ploughed in lands. Some farmers prefer this style of 
ploughs for another reason, which is this : when plough- 
ing land for any kind of grain that is to be diilled in, 
they can hitch the team to the drill twice, or more, in 
a day ; and put in the grain as far as the ploughing is 



234: THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 

completed, thus finishing the operation of seeding as 
fast as the ploughing progresses, which is often desira- 
ble. Besides this, when grain is deposited in soil just 
ploughed, or recently pulverized, the seed will usually 




Fig. 



-Holbrookes Eight and Left Plough. 



germinate sooner than when it is sowed in ground that 
has been ploughed several days, or so long a time that 
the surface has become somewhat dry before the seed 
is put in the soil. The right and left plough is also an 
excellent side-hill plough. Mr. Holbrook manufactures 
several other kinds of ploughs, which give excellent 
satisfaction for performing the operations for which they 
were particularly constructed. 



THE WHEAT CtTLTUEIST. 



235 



CHAPTER III. 

How TO Save Seed Wheat. 

"Oft have I seen the chosen seeds deceive, 
And o'er degenerate crops the peasant grieve, 
Save where slow Patience, o'er and o'er again, 
Culled yearly, one by one, the largest grain." 

Dryden's Virgil. 

JuDGma from the suggestions previously recorded, in 
regard to seed wheat, one would suppose that we might 
dispense with all details relating to the manipulations 
of saving the seed. But I consider the manipulations 
more important than anything I have recorded, as the 
directions herewith given are an epitome of all the rest. 
If a farmer will follow the directions here recorded, 
when securing his seed wheat, from year to year, he 
will feel so well satisfied with his efforts to produce 
a bountiful crop of fine grain, that he will never suffer 
himself to resort to the slip-shod and unprofitable and 
unfarmer-like manner, which prevails all over our coun- 
try. 

Let it be borne in mind that earliness of maturity is 
the most important consideration in saving seed wheat. 
Of course, then, seed should never be taken from a 
locality where the crops are backward in regard to 
maturity. 

It is not only important to select for seed, the grain 
that matures first on one's own farm, but from those 



236 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



iields in any other locality in the town or connty. My 
farm was some five or six hundred feet above the level 
of Cayuga Lake. The wheat growing on those fields 
near the shore of the lake, usually ripened ten to four- 
teen days earlier than the wheat on the upland. I al- 
ways secm-ed my seed from those farmers near the shore, 
for the first crop ; then, at the next harvest time, patches 
of the growing grain, a few rods square, on the knolls 
and highest points of the field, were staked off on my 
own farm and allowed to stand until the grain had 
matured perfectly. The grain that grew on such ele- 
vated parts of the field, would mature sometimes a week 
before the grain grovring on low parts of the same field 
was fit to harvest. 

Such seed grain should always be harvested by itself: 
stacked or stored in the barn by itself; thrashed by 
itself ; and secured in a bin or barrels by itself. It is 
folly to attempt to grow a bountiful crop of wheat un- 
less all these directions are followed out, year after year, 
with scrupulous exactness. "When the unthrashed crop 
of grain is stored in a building, the sheaves should never 
be put in the bottom of the mow, unless unusual care 
be exercised in removing the grain that may be placed 
above the seed grain, to prevent grain that is not fit for 
seed, from falling down among the seed bundles. 

Another important consideration to be kept in mind 
is, to procure seed that grows on high, dry, and rather 
heavy soil, rather than to choose grain that was pro- 
duced on a light, mucky soil. Grain that grows on a 
light, mucky soil, is seldom as light colored as that which 
was produced on a fertile clay loam. We always find 
the choicest and the whitest wheat where there is a 
liberal proportion of clay in the soil. In every locality, 



THE WHEAT CIJLTTIEIST. 



237 



farmers should spend a part of a day, at harvest-time, 
travelling about the country, for the purpose of seeing 
where they can secure the earliest seed wheat. 

I believe that farmers, almost universally, pay little 
or no attention to the time when seed ripens. If it is 
only ripe and bright seed, perhaps not one farmer in 
a thousand would even think, whether it ripened in 
August, or in ITovember. We cannot expect that any 
seed which has come to maturity very late in the sea- 
son, will produce a crop as early as the same kind of 
seed will, which ripened in August. By collecting and 
planting those seeds that ripened very late in the season, 
we can soon produce a variety that will not ripen at all, 
unless the season were unusually long and favorable. 

For this reason, we select, as far as practicable, those 
ears of Indian com for seed which ripen first ; and by 
following up this practice, from year to year, we pro- 
duce a kind of seed that will mature in the shortest pos- 
sible period of time ; while on the contrary, if we select 
those ears for seed that came to maturity last, and con- 
tinue that practice for a few years, we shall have all 
roasting ears in October, and no sound corn. My expe- 
rience on this subject goes to establish this position, 

A correspondent of the " Prairie Farmer " wrote to 
that paper thus : " There is, perhaps, no branch of the 
farmer's business which is conducted more hap-hazard 
than the selecting of seed. Many do not realize the im- 
portance of selecting the best of seed. To such I pro- 
pose to offer a word of advice. All small grain may be 
classed together ; for what holds good of wheat is also 
true of barley, rye, or oats. I verily believe, that a 
large share of the failure of wheat, in I^orthern Illinois, 
is due to the fact, that the farmer simply goes to his bin 



238 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



and cleans over the reqiiired number of bushels he wishes 
to sow. Often, very often, this grain is sown without 
being cleaned at all. Want of time is urged as an ex- 
cuse, because the ground is left until it is fitted for the 
seed. If it is a law of natm'e that like produces like, 
what can be expected of such a process but a constant, 
certain deterioration 

Choose the Heaviest Kernels. 

The heaviest, cleanest, most perfect berry should be 
sown always, of all small grain. One way to obtain 
this kind of seed is as follows : Clean your barn floor ; 
place yom- grain in a heap at the opposite door to the 
one at which the current of air enters ; then with a small 
hand-scoop throw out your grain against the wind, so as 
to fall a little short of the other end of your floor. Of 
course the heaviest grain will be that which flies fur- 
thest ; and this will be clean also. If the screen in your 
fanning-mill has meshes wide enough to admit of the 
small grains of wheat passing through, yoa may succeed 
in cleaning your wheat fit for seed, also your rye ; but 
for oats and barley this will not be the case, as the small 
grain cannot pass through the screen. 

On this subject of selecting seed wheat, a writer in 
the " Mark Lane Express " has said : " The varieties of 
wheat are now so numerous, that much difiiculty arises 
in making a proper choice. Whatever variety may be 
chosen, the farmer ought to select the best sample of it 
that he can meet with. I would as soon use an inferior 
ram to my flock, or an inferior bull to my herd, as to 
sow an inferior grain, be it from whatever well-known 
stock. I have derived great advantage from changes 



THE WHEAT CULTTTRIST. 



239 



of seed, brought from a considerable distance on every 
side, to the extent of hundreds of miles. But, it was 
from seed on which I could depend. My favorite 
change is, from a cold, chalky, district to a mild, loamy 
soil. In a majority of cases, a change is good on every 
soil, and under every variation of climate." 

Vitality of Seed Wheat. 

The old story in relation to the wonderful vitality of 
wheat taken from the coffin of an Egyptian mummy, 3,000 
years old, has been reiterated by the press, until intelli- 
gent farmers will not give it any kind of credence. It 
is sheer folly to repeat such an improbability ! I do not 
believe a word of it. (See p. 107, Egyptian Wheat.) 
Wheat was undoubtedly taken from a mummy ; but 
there was not a shadow of evidence, that the grain was 
3,000 years old. Indeed, the evidence is conclusive, 
that some shi-ewd Arab — as they understand how eager 
white and civilized people are to obtain curiosities — put 
the package of wheat in the mummy, only a few years 
previous, as seeds of maize, a plant of recent origin and 
known in America before it was ever seen in the Old 
World, were found in the package. 

Scientific men in Europe, have made numerous ex- 
periments to test the vitality of seeds, all of which tend 
to show, that cereal grain will lose its vitality in a few 
successive years. 

In the year 1840 the British Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, appointed a committee to investi- 
gate the length of time during which seeds retain their 
vitality. The committee consisted of Professors Dan- 
bury, Henslow, and Lindley. They made sixteen re- 



240 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



ports ; the last being for the year 1857, at which time, 
so few seeds were found to retain their vegetative powers, 
that it was deemed necessary to consider the object 
attained. 

The results of their investigation are well known, 
and are exceedingly interesting. Thus, they found that 
in their hands, the celebrated mummy wheat which had 
been claimed to have come down from the time of the 
Pharaohs, had no such vitality as had been claimed for 
it. After a few years, it entirely loses its vegetative 
powers. Some seeds, as lettuce, become worthless after 
a couple of years. Others, as melons, endure for a 
comparatively long period. A few of the most interest- 
ing of these results I give. They found that the great- 
est age at which seeds germinated are as follows, viz. : 



Maize, . . 
Oats, . . . 
Spring Wheat, 
%e, . . . 
Barley, . . 



3 yrs. 



. 3 " 
. 3 
. 3 " 



Cabbage, 

Hibiscus, 

Carrot, 

Beet, 

Lettuce, 



3 yrs. 
27 " 
8 " 
8 « 
3 " 



Only two kinds (Colutea and Coronilla) vegetated after 
a lapse of forty-seven years. 

The vitality shown by some seeds is wonderful ; and 
the probability is, that certain kinds of seeds retain 
their vitality much longer in one climate than in ano- 
ther. I once sowed some timothy seed, which I raised 
on my own farm, which was six years old, bright and 
plump when it was sowed. But, not a seed vegetated, 
although it was sowed on new land, where the soil fa- 
vored the vegetation of every seed. I also sowed a sack 
of Russian flaxseed, which appeared bright and heavy ; 
but not one single plant ever appeared. 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



241 



Professor Lindley says : There are many cases on 
record which estabh'sh conclusively that, under favor- 
able conditions, the vitality of seeds may be preserved 
for indefinite periods. ' E"ot to speak of the doubtful 
instances of seeds taken from the Pyramids having 
germinated,' melons have been known to grow at the 
age of forty years ; kidney beans at a hundred ; sensi- 
tive plant at sixty ; rye at forty ; and there are now liv- 
ing in the garden of the Horticultural Society raspberry 
plants raised from seeds 1,600 or 1,700 years old. 

" The seeds of charlock buried in former ages spring 
up in railway cuttings ; where ancient forests are de- 
stroyed, plants appear which had never been seen before, 
but whose seeds have been buried in the ground. When 
some land was recovered from the Baltic Sea, a carex 
was found upon it, now unknown in that part of Europe. 
M. Fries, of Upsala, succeeded in growing a species of 
Hieracium from seeds which had been in his herbarium 
upward of fifty years. Desmoulins has recorded an 
instance of the opening of ancient tombs, in which 
seeds were found ; and on being planted they produced 
species of scabiosa and heliotropium." 

A Reliable Pule. 

Seeds and grain often lose their vitality ; and we 
cannot determine by the external appearance of a seed 
or kernel of grain, whether its vitality is gone, or not. 
It is, therefore, always wise to keep on the safe side, by 
sowing wheat that has not been kept over more than 
one winter. Wheat that is sown in autumn, should 
not be the product of the previous year ; but grain that 
grew the same season. Spring wheat should be the pro- 

11 



242 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



duct of the previous year. Therefore, when seed wheat 
or seed rye is obtained from seed stores, or from any 
other source, if the grain were not raised the j)revious 
3^ear, a handful of the kernels should be tested, before 
the grain is sowed in the field, for the purpose of deter- 
mining whether the seed will germinate. There is no 
reliable rule concerning the vitality of any kind of seed 
grain. In one instance, every kernel of seed may vege- 
tate, when it is ten, or more years old. On the con- 
trary, a large proportion of seed only three and four 
years old, may, and may not vegetate. 



Large m. Small Kernels of Grain for Seed. 

" Yet, the success is not for years assured, 
Though chosen is the seed and fully cured. 
Unless the peasant, with his annual pain, 
Renews his choice, and culls the largest grain." 

Drtden's Viegil. 

We perceive by the suggestions in the preceding coup- 
let, which was penned several hundred years ago, that 
the importance of choosing the largest kernels was 
understood in those days, as well as now. But, whether 
the precept was observed in selecting seed, is a question 
involved in some doubt, as cultivators of the soil are 
exceedingly apt to neglect the saving of all kinds of 
seed. Besides this, many intelligent farmers and gar- 
deners contend that it makes no difference whether the 
small kernels of the tip end of an ear, or any others, be 
planted ; and, to prove it, they refer to experiments re- 
corded by C. L. Flint, secretary of the Massachusetts 
Board of Agriculture, in which it is stated, that it has 
been proved by experiment that the yield of Indian corn 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEI8T. 



243 



from the kernels on the tip end of the ears, was greater 
than from seed on the middle of the ear. 

E"o doubt Mr. Flint recorded the experiment in good 
faith ; but I have no confidence in the result of it. I 
do not believe it was fairly conducted. It is contrary to 
reason, common sense, the experience of good farmers, 
and opposed to the established laws of vegetable physi- 
ology, that a small, ill-formed kernel should produce 
more and better grain than would grow from the best 
ones on the ear. All good farmers, in ages past, and 
even at the present day, have been instructed to plant 
the best kernels — to propagate from the best kind of 
everything — ^because " like produces like," as well in the 
vegetable as the animal kingdom. 

In our efforts to improve our domestic animals, we 
always choose the very best as a breeder — one that pos- 
sesses the most good points of form, symmetry, and con- 
stitution. By this means our flocks and herds have been 
brought to their present degree of perfectibility. ITow, 
let us suppose, for example, that we are told by a man, 
who is considered good authority, that, by selecting the 
meanest and shabbiest-looking nags that can be found, 
or by breeding from the veriest scrub of a cow and 
skalawag bull, we may obtain animals superior to any- 
thing that we have ever raised ! Every sensible man or 
woman would say, at once, that the idea is a palpable 
absurdity. When we breed froifi ill-favored animals, we 
never expect to get offspring superior to their progenitors ; 
because it would be unnatural for an animal, or for any 
kind of seed, to impart to its issue or product, excellencies 
which itself never possessed. If we can raise more and 
better grain from the small, ill-formed kernels on the 
little end of the ear, than from the largest and fairest. 



244 



THE WHEAT CTJLTURIST. 



then we may sift out all the small grains of oats and 
wheat for seed, instead of selecting the largest and 
plumpest with so much care, as good farmers consider to 
be essential to a large crop. 

There are many theories and experiments recorded and 
promulgated, by men who ought to know better, in re- 
gard to planting small, half-ripe seed, or rearing animals 
from inferior breeders, all of which tends to mislead be- 
ginners in agriculture. Any old, superannuated grand- 
mother, in her second childhood, knows better than to 
recommend planting inferior seed, if we would raise an 
abundant crop. Scientific writers have done an untold 
amount of harm by sanctioning such palpable absurdities 
about the comparative excellence of good and inferior 
seed. Let our young farmers not be misled by the 
teachings of scientific writers, when reason and common 
sense both assure us, that such teachings are erroneous ; 
and, if followed out to the letter, the result will be a 
serious failure and a grievous disappointment. 



How TO PEODTJOE A N'eW YarIETT OF WhEAT. 

The true way to obtain a new variety of wheat is to 
go to the field of some excellent farmer, who sustains 
a fair reputation for raising superior wheat, when the 
grain is ripe, and select one, two, or more heads for 
seed. You can select, if you choose, one or two that 
appear to be quite unlike the great proportion of the 
heads. The ultimate product of this peculiar head, or 
heads, of grain will be the new variety sought. If you 
select a few heads of the best in the field, the product 
will be only an improved variety of grain. Reject such 
heads as are not well filled out with plump kernels. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTURIST. 



245 



Those also that do not have chaff of a uniform appear- 
ance should not be selected, as chaff of different colors 
and forms and partially bearded is a certain indication 
of a hybrid grain. The aim should be to start with a 
pure variety, if possible. Then prepare the ground by 
thorough pulverization and manuring, as for a carrot- 
bed, and plant the seed about the middle of September 
in the latitude of 'New York city. Make a hole two 
inches deep with one finger, or with a wooden dibble, 
and one foot apart in rows each way, with one kernel 
in a place, and cover the seed with mellow, rich soil. 
See that fowls do not scratch up the grain, nor bite off' 
the tender blades after they have grown two or more 
inches long. If the ground is rich, every kernel will 
produce a stem that will tiller so extensively as to occu- 
py the entire ground with large heads of grain. ISText 
season, and the two following seasons, weed the wheat, 
and reject every head that appears a trifle different from 
all the rest of the ears. In a few years the identity of 
the variety will be permanently established, and the 
quality of the grain and its productiveness will be so 
greatly improved that one bushel of seed will yield sev- 
eral bushels more of superior grain per acre than can 
be grown on the same soil from ordinary seed. 

After a valuable variety of wheat has been well estab- 
lished, if proper care be exercised in selecting the seed, 
from year to year, there is no more danger that an ex- 
cellent variety will degenerate, than that the South 
Down breed of sheep will run out, when bred and 
reared with care, from year to year. 

The " ISTorth British Agriculturist " says on this sub- 
ject : 

" In every field of grain there are to be seen ears differ- 



246 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



ing in size, in form, and in general appearance from 
those growing beside them. Some of these can be 
recognized as the ears of established varieties ; but a few 
will be distinct from any of the kinds in cultivation. 
Farmers usually bestow little attention on the different 
kinds of ears which may be sometimes seen growing in 
the same field, and which can be best observed during 
the cutting and harvesting of the crop ; but if one farm- 
er in a thousand would undertake the collection of 
such ears with the intention of sowing the seed, and thus 
propagating the kinds, the number of varieties would 
soon be considerably increased, and the kinds in culti- 
vation would be improved by this selection of the best 
ears. Those who intend to collect ears of one or more 
of the cereals should proceed methodically, not only 
when selecting, but in keeping the ears of the apparently 
different kinds distinct at the time of gathering them, so 
that each kind can be sown by itself, and the produce 
from the seed of the selected ears collected and stored 
for future sowing. During the time of selecting ears, 
small bags formed of cloth should be carried, and as the 
ears are separated from the stalks, they should be placed 
in one or other of the bags. Care should be exercised 
to prevent confusion and intermixing of the seeds. 

Every circumstance should be noted at the time, such 
as the field of grain in which the ears were gathered ; 
the characteristic featm-es which the ears presented in 
growing, such as size, form, whether the ears are close 
or open, and the color of the chaff and straw, chaff 
smooth or downy, and other points deemed worthy of 
being recorded. A written description should be placed 
with the ears put into each bag for after reference, as it 
is seldom advisable to trust to the memory as to facts. 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



The bags containing the ears should be hung in an open 
place away from mice or other depredators until the 
period of sowing the seeds. 

The amount of trouble which the propagating of vari- 
ties entails, renders it advisable for experimenters not 
to attempt too much at one time. Only those who are 
resolved to bestow minute attention during the whole 
period from the time of selecting the ears until the quan- 
tity of grain produced admits of its being distributed, 
should undertake the selection of ears for propagating 
the variety. 

Keeping Yaeieties Puke. 

In propagating new varieties, constant attention is es- 
sential to keep the variety true to the kind selected, 
more particularly if it has originated in what is termed 
a sport, either the result of cultivation or hybridiza- 
tion — the pollen of the ear of one variety fertilizing 
the seeds contained in the ear of a different kind. This 
hybridization is sometimes effected by experimenters, 
but accidental contact is the more frequent cause of the 
sports which appear in cultivated plants. Every variety 
of grain in cultivation will occasionally show ears differ- 
ing from those which possess the characteristic appear- 
ances of the variety, while some varieties show red or 
brown ears, and ears vidth and without awns. The 
higher the manurial condition of the soil, the tend- 
ency to sporting appears to increase in force. As the 
soil should be made rich on which the seeds of the select- 
ed ears are grown year after year, this tendency to sport 
is certain to appear ; and as the propagating of the select- 
ed variety is proceeded with, constant care is essential to 



248 



THE WHEAT CULTIIRIST. 



cull out the ears which differ from the original stand- 
ard of the selected ears. If the variety is the result of 
hybridization, this culling is all-important. 

The ears will differ considerably in appearance, some 
resembling the kind from which the fertilizing pollen 
was derived, and others more closely resembling the 
variety which the pollen fertilized. Uniformity is es- 
sential to entitle any grain to the term variety ; and this 
uniformity can only be secm'ed by constant care in se- 
lection. After the type becomes fixed, sporting and 
degenerating will almost wholly cease, provided ordinary 
care is taken by the propagator. But every established 
variety should be kept up by occasional selection of the 
best ears. 

In an industrial point of view, the propagating of a 
new prolific variety of any of the grains is of immense 
national importance. Any new variety which would 
yield from one to four bushels of additional grain per 
acre over the ordinary varieties in cultivation would tend 
thus far to raise the resources of om* own soils. In this 
direction an extensive and most inviting field is open 
to all cultivators. Were agriculturists to study more 
closely the operations of horticulturists, much benefit 
would result to all. Farmers generally not unly under- 
value, but wholly disregard what horticulturists have 
done for agriculture. 

The pleasure, and in exceptional cases the profit, to 
be derived is so considerable, that the propagator of new 
varieties will generally be amply rewarded for the time 
occupied in conducting the various operations of select- 
ing, sowing, and reaping new kinds of grain. Those 
farmers who are anxious to improve the varieties of 
grain in cultivation — wheat, oats, or barley — should adopt 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



249 



the same means as those so successfully followed out by 
horticulturists — hybridizing, and more especially by se- 
lecting the best ears, and growing the seed so obtained 
until sufficient quantities are secured to seed consider- 
able portions of land preparatory to disposing of a 
portion of the seeds raised from the selected ears. The 
improvement of the domestic animals and birds has been 
mainly effected by selection, and the same principles are 
equally applicable for the improvement of the various 
varieties of the cereals in cultivation. This field of ex- 
periment is open to all, and the persevering may cal- 
culate upon success. Where so much can be effected 
with even an ordinary amount of attention, the experi- 
menter who possesses a knowledge of the cereals, and 
also of vegetable phj^siology, is certain to reap a good 
harvest. (See North British Agriculturist on the 
subject of selecting new varieties.) 

Pkocueing Earlier Seed Wheat at the I^oeth. 

Mr. J. W. Clark, of Wisconsin, writes on this subject 
as follows : " Why should we suppose southern seed will 
give us earlier wheat, when we know our own wheat or 
corn cannot ripen so early farther north as it does in our 
own latitude ? Do not middle latitudes bear nearly the 
same relation to the south as northern ones do to them, 
and so in proportion of intermediate differences of dis- 
tance and temperature ? 

" We have good reason to believe there was no such 
thing as Dent corn grown in latitudes 42° to 44° north, 
fifteen years ago. But when Brigham Young and his 
dupes were scattered from Missouri — Yellow Dent, and 
subsequently White, in consequence of the Yellow suc- 

11* 



250 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



ceeding — was introduced into these latitudes in Wis- 
consin and elsewhere, by some of his, or rather Joe 
Smith's followers. The climate of those latitudes was 
then much as at present ; yet it required full five years 
to acclimate this favorite and now general variety of 
the northwest, before it matured sufficiently early to 
ripen ere severe frosts set in and could be relied upon 
as a staple crop. Wheat being subject to the same 
forces of climate, must be therefore influenced in the 
degree that its new place of growth is dissimilar, or more 
or less favorable to vegetable development. Mr. Clay's 
and his neighbor Mr. Howard's experience, though the 
opposite of each other, both tend to prove that corn 
cannot mature so early when first grown from southern 
seed ; and the writer used seed from Maryland two 
years ago, and- under the most favorable condition of 
soil and culture, yet not a kernel of it ripened. If 
five years are requisite to acclimate corn removed only 
five or six degrees farther north, and seed raised in 
Mississippi does not ripen till October in Kentucky, 
and that grown in Maryland will not ripen at all in 
latitude 43° north, why are we to expect Kentucky 
wheat to ripen in Western 'New York, and the same 
latitude west or east of it, earlier than native-grown 
seed ? 

" If it should be alleged that wheat, unlike corn in this 
particular, does not require either so high a heat or so 
long a season to mature it, the fact is admitted ; but 
what is the inference ? Is it, that because wheat ripens 
early, and before the hottest weather has more than half 
passed, in Tennessee or Kentucky, it will ripen equally 
early five to ten degrees farther north ? If this be the 
supposition, it must surely be without good reason or 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



251 



theory — the same thing. What can such an inference 
mean in the light of the fact that peas, strawberries, 
etc., that have been grown in Georgia and the Carolinas, 
are seen in abundance in the 'New York market, that 
have been grown in Georgia and the Carolinas several 
weeks, more or less, before the same and similar varie- 
ties are even out of blossom eight or ten degrees farther 
northward. The peas were nearly ripe at the south in 
consequence of being subject to a sufficiency of heat by 
a given date, and they were not yet formed in the pod 
at the north, by reason of not having been subject to 
any such sufficiency of heat as was necessary to a like 
result at the same date. 

" If wheat seed is taken from south to north, it does 
not carry any vital force in the seed germ that can 
modify or resist the force of northern temperatures. On 
the contrary, northern temperature, or climatic forces, 
must control the character of the next seed crop, by 
wholly originating and controlling the growth of the 
entire plant. Supposing northern fall wheat to be just 
restarting to grow with vigor at the opening of the Erie 
Canal, similar fall wheat will be then half-leg high in 
Tennessee, and this because it was subject to a sufficiency 
of heat weeks before our northern wheat received any 
such adequate supply of that thermal element. 

" To procure seed from the south will not only not 
accelerate, but retard the harvest, because such seed will 
have been acclimated by and be adapted to a higher 
degree of heat at such and all, or nearly all, stages of 
its growth, than it can receive in a far northern situation. 
Having grown under a higher thermal forcing influence, it 
will not grow, till after several years of acclimation, with 
equal vigor and rapidity with a lower heat or less forcing. 



252 



THE WHEAT CULTFEIST. 



"But procure seed from Canada. Sweden, or an v more 
northern Ljcality. where the temperature in the average 
is cijlcler. and the thne c»f first growing later in the 
spring, ond harvest still later, in consequence of the 
lower average of summer heat, and the more time 
needed to supply the heat required ; take seed wheat 
from such a situation to one where the growing season 
commences earlier by reason of the recjuisite heat heing 
earlier present, and it will not only commence its growth 
as much earlier as the L^erminatino^ decree of heat ear- 
lier sm'rounds it, but will ripen much earlier generally, 
as the average heat is higher by reason of having been 
subject to the irhole amount of the great thermal ele- 
ment necessary to its maturity in a shorter or le^ss period 
of time. Thus, on this Cjuestion, theory and facts ap- 
pear to adjust themselves consistently together ; and our 
decided conclusion is. that from farther north is the di- 
rection seed wheat or corn, or in fact any cereal, should 
be procured, if the object be to secm-e earlier maturity 
in the resulting product. Cereals that ripen early fai* 
north, will naturally and with general certainty mature 
earlier when cultivated c^'usiderably farther south." 
Eead Climotology offbeat, pp. 57. 79. 

Facts to Peove it. 

Old wheat-growers will contend earnestly, that facts 
are against this theory. If they are. I have not had the 
good fortune to meet those facts. If it can be shown 
by well-conducted ex]3eriments that seed wheat should 
be procured in a suuthern latitude, then we will believe 
it. But, in order to establish such an assertion, excel- 
lent seed must be obtained in every instance, and the 
test made fairly, for several successive seasons. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



253 



Degexeeacy of Wheat — Cause a^td Eemedt. 

From time out of mind there appears to have been 
a prevalent opinion among wheat-growers that varie- 
ties of wheat deteriorate, becoming in a few years so 
unproducti^'e that other kinds are sought and culti- 
vated. Allusion to this subject is made in Yirgil, 
penned more than two thousand years ago, and the 
writer speaks of having seen the peasant grieve over 
the degeneracy of his grain, where the heads had not 
been culled with care from year to year. We have 
always observed from boyhood that farmers have recog- 
nized this fact, and when alluding to it have appeared 
to acknowledge that there is no remedy for it, When 
writers have alluded to varieties of wheat cultivated in 
different parts of om' country, they have almost inva- 
riably mentioned kinds that once flourished, but "for 
some unknown cause have degenerated." The English 
Agricultural Society, several years ago, issued circulars 
desii'ing information on this subject. 

It cannot be denied that varieties of wheat do run 
out. We well remember when a boy, that a kind of 
Avinter wheat called Red Chaff, or Bald Wheat, was 
cultivated quite extensively in that part of the State 
where we were living ; but in a few years farmers dis- 
continued raising it, because, they said, it had run 
out." The same was true of the White "Flint, Beaver 
Dam, Wild Goose, and Hutchinson Wheat, most of 
which yielded well when first introduced ; but after a 
few years failed to return remunerating crops. The 
identity of the variety appeared to be gone. The heads 
were of various colors, and the kernels small, of differ- 
ent and varied forms, and the yield was less and less 



254 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



from year to year, until farmers were satisfied that it 
would not pay to sow that kind of wheat any longer. 

The abettors of this theory of degeneracy, maintain 
that the wheat plant has an inherent tendency to de- 
generate ; and not a few men, who have acquired some- 
thing of a reputation for being scientific, have also 
endorsed this visionary theory, and have even afiirmed 
that " the science of botany and vegetable physiology 
proves that wheat, or any other j)lant, when grown on 
the same soil for a long succession of years, will con- 
tinue to degenerate until it is not worth raising." This 
theory received the sanction of such men as Hon. Jesse 
Buel, who moved the world with his agricultural wis- 
dom, and who acknowledged that "the tendency of 
varieties to degenerate is not a vague opinion, but a 
fixed fact, and that the duration of a variety in perfec- 
tion is generally computed at from fourteen to twenty 
years, though this period is sometimes prolonged by a 
change of soil or climate." T. A. Knight, the Presi- 
dent of the London Horticultural Society, writes : " I 
believe that almost every variety now cultivated in this 
and the adjoining counties, has long since passed the 
period of its age when a succession should have taken 
its place. It has long been known that every variety 
cultivated, gradually becomes debilitated, losing a large 
portion of its powers of producing grain fully equal to 
previous crops." 

We know this is not so. The science of botany and 
vegetable physiology teaches no such doctrine. Rea- 
son, common sense, and the experience of the past are 
all decidedly against it. It never has been and never 
can be shown that there is any natural tendency in 
well-established varieties of wheat, or any other grain, to 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



255 



degenerate, any more than there is in the suggestion 
that the human race grows imbecile and effeminate from 
generation to generation. The theory has no facts to 
sustain it. If properly cultivated and suitable care be 
exercised in selecting the seed, varieties may be main- 
tained in all their primeval excellency and purity as 
long as the vicissitudes of the seasons continue, 
grant that varieties do degenerate and lose their identi- 
ty, their vital energies " and powers of reproduction. 

We have due respect for the integrity of such writers 
as were just alluded to. But when they recorded these 
suggestions they simply reiterated what they considered 
to be plausible theories that had been broached by other 
writers, all of whom had made assertions touching the 
degeneration of wheat. In this way many vague and 
exceedingly erroneous theories have been promulgated 
from year to year by scientific writers on agricultural 
subjects. But mere assertion of a supposed fact does 
not constitute a well-established theory on any subject. 

On the borders of the River Isile, in Africa, one of 
the finest regions in the world for the production of ex- 
cellent wheat, the same varieties are grown, from year 
to year, without the least deterioration, that were culti- 
vated three thousand years ago. And the same thing 
may be done in this country by exercising the same care 
in the selection of the seed that is observed by the farm- 
ers in that part of the world. 

It is a well-established fact that wheat will hybridize 
when different varieties are allowed to grow in close 
proximity. Of com-se, the product would be a mixtm-e 
of seed, in which the purity of the variety is gone. 
Consequently, with a mixture of seed, a farmer would 
find himself in the same circumstances with reference 



256 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



to the improvement of his wheat that he is when he 
undertakes to improve his domestic animals bj breed 
ing from mongrels or from grade stock. It is well un- 
derstood that such animals — grades and mongrels — ■ 
when employed as breeders, never transmit the excel- 
lent points of desirable form and symmetry to then* off- 
spring with reliable certainty, while pure-bred animals 
never fail in this respect. 

The same facts hold good in the vegetable kingdom, 
with seed wheat in particular. When different varie- 
ties are sown in close proximity, and the product, which 
will be an impure grain, is agfiin employed for seed, a 
pm-e variety of choice wheat may be run out most effect- 
ually in a few years, so that intelligent farmers who 
were only suj)erficial observers would be ready to affirm, 
without any hesitancy, that wheat does degenerate. 
The cause of degeneracy, and the remedy, may all be 
expressed in a few words. We have hinted at the cause, 
namely : sowing different varieties near each other, so 
that the grain will hybridize; thrashing several kinds 
together, and continuing to employ such grain for seed 
from year to year. Herein lies the whole secret of the 
degeneracy of varieties. If a pure variety be kept by 
itself with suitable care, and cultivated on good ground, 
and the grain never thrashed ^vith other wheat, the pu- 
rity of a variety of wheat, with all its excellent charac- 
teristics, may be maintained intact as long as wheat 
may be cultivated. There is no uncertainty about this 
suggestion. The idea is in perfect keeping with the 
established laws of vegetable physiology. Cultivating 
any variety of grain in a slip-shod, slack, and perfunc- 
tory manner, will cause the best variety of wheat the 
world ever knew to degenerate and run completely out 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



257 



in a few years. On the contrary, if the seed be selected 
every season with the same care that the originator of 
the Weeks wheat observed for a decade of years, gen- 
erations unborn wonld cultivate the same varieties that 
om- fields now produce, without the least deterioration 
in either yield or quality of grain. 

FoiTHEE Testimoxt OX Degexekacy. 

I herewith copy the following suggestions from the 
" Independent :" " If there were an inherent tendency in 
wheat to degenerate — as many people afiirm there is — 
how is it that no signs of degeneracy are manifest, so 
long as a well-established variety is cultivated well, from 
year to year, and kept by itself ? Xo farmer was ever 
heard to complain that his ' wheat appears to be run- 
ning out,' until after there has been great neglect in sav- 
ing the seed. 

" Clean, pure, and well-ripened seed is sowed on tlie 
best soil for many seasons, after which, many farmers 
become indifferent about then- seed, often sowing that 
kind of grain which is nothing more nor less than a 
hybrid. Mediterranean wheat — which is usually a red 
variety — and the various kinds of white wheat, are 
often thrashed together. The good, the poor, the well- 
matured, and half-ripe and shrunken kernels, all go into 
one bin; and such grain is used for seed. ]^sow, as 
wheat will sport and hybridize when growing in close 
proximity, how can we expect, with any degree of con- 
fidence, that good grain will be produced by very infe- 
rior seed ? 

" In producing new varieties of strawberries and Irish 
potatoes, a certain kind is often cultivated for several 



258 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



successive years, and sometimes abandoned, as un- 
worthy of further efforts in endeavoring to establish a 
new variety. Therefore, when farmers sow anything 
and everything that is called wheat, letting it all grow 
together, whether it ripens early or late, and cultivate 
it poorly at that, and take no pains to sow the choicest 
seed, or to keep a good variety distinct, what can any 
one naturally expect, but rapid degeneracy of the grain? 
Degeneracy, or ' running out of varieties,' is the natural 
and certain result of such bad management in the selec- 
tion of the seed, and cultivation of the crop, to which 
we have alluded. 

" We never hear that a good variety of Indian corn 
has degenerated, until it has been planted near other 
kinds, with which it has been allowed to mix. And, if 
the same care were exercised in selecting the very best 
kernels of a well-established variety of wheat for seed, 
and keeping the seed grain separate, in a secm^e place, 
we should have the unbounded satisfaction of seeing our 
wheat fields produce, not only larger heads, plumper ker- 
nels, and heavier grain in much greater abundance per 
acre, but no signs of degeneracy would appear, were the 
same kind of grain raised in one locality generation 
after generation. 

" Historians inform us that the same varieties of good 
wheat are now grown on the fertile soils on each side 
of the River l^ile in Egypt, with no signs of degeneracy, 
that were raised there a thousand years ago. 

" Instead of there being a natural tendency in wheat 
to degenerate, if it is cultivated as it always should be, 
and none but the best seed put in, there would be a 
manifest tendency to improve from year to year. Every 
experienced wheat-grower will acknowledge this. Farm- 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



259 



ers who never save their seed with care will doubt 
it." 

The Commissioner of Agriculture recorded the fol- 
lowing fact in regard to the degeneracy of the Hunter 
wheat, which corroborates what I have penned. He 
writes : " Hunter's wheat, one of the oldest and most 
esteemed varieties in Scotland, was discovered half a 
century ago by the roadside in Berwickshire. Through 
long culture and want of care this variety has greatly 
deteriorated." 

In searching agricultural documents for facts on this 
subject, I have been greatly surprised to meet with so 
long a list of once excellent varieties of wheat, entirely 
run out, so that they are no longer cultivated. It is a 
serious and grave accusation against American tillers of 
the soil, that as a general rule, the wheat crop is neg- 
lected and shamefully abused ; and I often wonder that 
we raise half as good crops as we now meet with. 

When to Sow Winter Wheat. 

Winter wheat may be sowed too early in the season 
as well as too late. Every intelligent farmer will ad- 
mit this fact. There must be, therefore, a certain 
period, midway between the too-early and the too-late 
time, which may be fixed upon, as the most proper pe- 
riod of all the growing season, to put in the seed. In 
designating any given period as the best time to sow 
winter wheat, there are considerations of transcendent 
importance to be observed, each and all of which will 
be found to exert more or less influence on the wheat 
crop. The growing wheat has destructive enemies to 
encounter, which flourish only at certain periods in the 



260 



THE WHEAT CULTUHIST. 



growing season. The aim of the husbandman, there- 
fore, should be to have his wheat plants grow, as much 
as possible, before, and after these enemies flourish and 
commit their ravages on the growing plants. Besides 
the insects destructive to wheat that must be encoun- 
tered in autumn, and those that it is desirable to shun 
in the summer, before harvest, there are adverse circum- 
stances which must be foreseen and guarded against, as 
much as practicable, among which I may mention 
drought, wet weather, and the sinister influence of the 
freezing and thawing of the soil in winter. In addition 
to these things, the habit of the wheat plant should 
exercise a controlling influence in the mind of the 
wheat-grower, in determining the most proper period 
for sowing the seed for a crop of Avinter grain. The 
wheat-grower must encounter hosts of formidable an- 
tagonists, in autumn, in winter, in spring time, and in 
summer. To outstrip one. dodge the other, circumvent 
a third, take advantage of a fourth, to run the gauntlet, 
so to speak, from September till the next harvest, liter- 
ally surrounded by untold millions of insects that find 
a rich subsistence on the germinating kernels, as soon 
as they exhibit signs of vegetation, and that feed on 
the tender blades, and extract the delicate juices from 
the growing kernels, and to triumph over all the ad- 
verse cii'cumstances and unpropitious influences of the 
season, and to be able, by agricultural skill and judi- 
cious management, to develop a large field of plump 
wheat, waving in the breezes like a sea of gold, is, most 
assuredly, a laudable employment. When we consider 
how many destructive enemies growing wheat has, and 
what a wonderfully fastidious plant wheat is, in regard 
to the vegetable nutrition that the soil aflbrds, it seems 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



261 



a mystery — ^not tliat farmers do not grow large crops of 
this kind of grain — but that they are able to matm^e 
any at all. 

E'ow, then, for the best time to sow winter wheat. 
In the first place, looking forward to the long and 
dreary winter, we find that the strongest wheat plants, 
those that are most firmly rooted and that have a sys- 
tem of luxmiant leaves, suf&cient to cover the surface 
of the ground, will endure the rigors of our northern 
winters with less injury. In consideration of this fact, 
reason would seem to dictate putting in the seed very 
early — even in the month of August. But there are 
destructive enemies ahead. If the seed be put in very 
early, so that the plants attain a large size in a few 
weeks, countless hordes of insects, in the form of the 
wheat fly, will nearly destroy the crop. As this enemy 
flourishes between the two periods — early seed time and 
late seed time — we must evade, if possible, its ravages. 
Therefore, we must choose the late seed time ; and in 
order to be prepared to resist the adverse influences of 
winter, we must plough and harrow and manure the 
soil, cultivate, pulverize, drain, and fertilize the seed- 
bed, and by repeated and most thorough mechanical 
tearing and trituration, get the ground into such a fa- 
vorable condition for vegetation, that the young plants 
will spring from seed deposited in the soil, after the 
dreaded foes have run their course, and still have sufli- 
cient time to become rooted and topped before the 
winter sets in. Here, then, we are able to fix upon a 
point of time for every farmer in every latitude, with 
the assurance that, if a crop cannot be secured by seed- 
ing, at that period, we must meet a failm-e. 

When wheat is sowed so late in the growing season, 



262 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



that the roots acquire very little toiiglmess, and the 
leaves attain only a small size before cold and freezing 
■\veather comes on, the growing plants will suffer such 
serious injury by the intense cold, and freezing, and 
thawing, and upheaval of the soil, that a fair crop of 
grain will not be produced the next season. Our best 
wheat-growers understand this point perfectly ; and our 
horticulturists and pomologists know how eminently im- 
portant it is, that a plant finish growing and attain a pro- 
per ripeness and solidity of juices, and some tenacity of 
fibre, before the tender plants are exposed to the destruc- 
tive influences of cold weather. In order, therefore, to 
be still more definite and explicit, respecting the best time 
to sow winter wheat, we may fix the time at this period, 
viz., let the seed be put in as late in the season as it can 
be, and still have sufiicient time to throw out a system 
of roots and leaves, sulficiently large to cover nearly or 
quite the entire surface of the ground. 

In this latitude, the great majority of wheat-growers 
agree that about the lOtli of September is the most de- 
sirable period to sow winter wheat. But, I think, that 
every intelhgent farmer, who understands the habit of 
the wheat plant, will agree with me, that if the ground 
be put in such excellent tilth, that the young plants will 
attain the desired size before cold weather comes on, 
the first or even the 10th of October will be found 
a more desirable period for autumnal seed-time than any 
time in September. But, let it be understood, that un- 
less the soil is in an excellent state of fertility — really 
rich — friable, and sufl&ciently moist when the seed is 
sowed to insure immediate germination, it will not be 
safe to defer seeding to that late period. Let me assure 
wheat-growers, however, that in practice, they will find 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



263 



it more profitable to make their soil doubly rich, and 
pulverize it more thoroughly, and put in their seed as 
late as the first of October, than to cultivate tolerably 
well, manure moderately, and sow at an early date. 

As we move south of this latitude, the period of seed 
time should be fixed at a still later date in autumn. We 
should keep in mind this one great fact, to put whip and 
spur to the growing wheat plants between the period 
when insects would injure its growth, and the infiuences 
of winter. Then, the crop will be safe, so far as its sal- 
vation can be secured by choosing the most propitious 
period for putting in the seed. But one of the most im- 
portant considerations in the whole system of wheat cul- 
tm'e is to have the soil in the right condition, bounti- 
fully fertilized with such pabulum as will develop a 
healthful and stiff straw and a plump and shining ker- 
nel. 

It would seem that early sowed grain in autumn 
would mature the next season just as many days earlier 
than other crops, as the seed which was put in. But 
experiments have shown that, in practice, we cannot 
count upon any advantage, from early seeding, in se- 
curing an early harvest, as wheat sowed the middle of 
September and the first of October, on the same kind of 
ground, will mature at the- same period the next season. 
If we would have wheat ripen early in the season, an 
early variety must be obtained, as early seeding will not 
secure an early harvest. 

The following extract taken from the report of a com- 
mittee appointed by the Kentucky Agricultural and 
Mechanical Association, will be read with interest. The 
Committee say : 

The fly, or as it is popularly known, the Hessian 



264 



THE WHEAT CIJLTIIRIST. 



fly, which, was not known in our country until the 
war of the Ke volution, was supposed to have been intro- 
duced here in the straw of the bedding of those merce- 
nary troops (the Hessians) whom our good mother sent 
over here to cut our throats. Your committee know of 
no remedy for this pest. It has been thought that late 
sowing obviated it to some extent. This is, no doubt, 
true. But there are several difficulties attending it. 
First — late sown wheat is more liable to be winter-kill- 
ed than that which is early sown. Second — it is just 
as liable to the spring crop of the fly as the other. And 
third — if it escapes these, it is much more liable to that 
worst of all difficulties, rust — indeed almost sm-e to be 
materially injured. Then the question comes, what 
shall we do ? It would probably be best not to sow 
early or late, but take a medium, say from the 25th 
September to 10th October. Yery early sown wheat 
is very liable to be badly injured by the insect." 

Moore's " Rural 'New Yorker," published at Rochester, 
New York, in the centre of a flne wheat-growing coun- 
try, says: "If the question is presented to the farmer 
whether he shall sow his wheat very early in the season 
on soil hastily and imperfectly prepared, or wait until a 
later period and expend more labor in the preparation 
of the seed-bed, let him decide in favor of late sowing 
and thorough preparation. Under most circumstances 
early sowing is of no advantage, and often it is highly 
injurious. The supposed benefit to be derived from it 
is a large fall growth, and strong-rooted plants which 
can endure the winter. But it is not always the largest 
growth of top in the wheat plant in the fall which 
makes the best root. Early sown wheat may have its 
growth, by means of warm, wet weather, thrown largely 



THE WHEAT CTJLTURIST. 



265 



to the top and less to the root, than is desirable, and in 
this case will not come through the winter as well as 
that sown later, when the cool weather is favorable to 
root growth and healthy development of leaf. We do 
not advise late sowing on poorly prepared ground, and 
that which is too much impoverished. Sow early on 
such soil, if you must sow it in poor condition. But it 
is preferable to defer the seeding a week or two, and, in 
the mean time, till and manure the .land. A top-dress- 
iug of manure or straw, after the sowing, is worth more 
for winter protection than a large development of the 
plant leaf ; and Western farmers that are in the habit 
of burning large quantities of straw might find better 
use for it in shielding their wheat fields. 

This year the Hessian fiy has injured the wheat crop 
to a greater extent than usual. Early sowing induces 
their attack. Yery early sowing, followed by a warm 
autumn, sometimes causes the seed stalk to start before 
winter stops the growth of the plant, and thus a portion 
of its strength is wasted. We do not advocate extremes 
either way in sowing wheat, but first, a thorough prep- 
aration of the soil, then the choosing, if possible, of 
that medium period which comes after the heat and 
drought of an early autumn, and gives tinte for a 
moderate and healthy growth before winter." 

Mr. David Wood, Yenice, Cayuga County, 'New York, 
who is an excellent practical farmer, communicated to 
me the following suggestions in relation to wheat cul- 
tm-e : — The best time to sow winter wheat with us is, 
from the first of September to the tenth. If sowed be- 
fore that period the plants grow too large before winter. 
Wheat that has attained a large growth in autumn, is 
more apt to winter-kill than if the stems and leaves 

12 



266 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



were smaller. If sowed later than this period, the 
plants will not grow enough before winter to insure a 
good crop of grain. 

Sowing Seed Wheat in Winter. 

I once tried an experiment by sowing winter wheat 
after the growing season had ended, and the ground 
was about to freeze up. The soil was thoroughly pre- 
pared, by several times ploughing, and the last plough- 
ing was done about the middle of I^ovember. About 
the fifth of December there were certain indications that 
winter was about to commence in sober earnest. I 
then sowed the wheat, and harrowed it in ; and the next 
day the ground froze up tight, and remained till the 
next March. The wheat did not germinate until the 
growing season had commenced. 

The experiment was exceedingly unsatisfactory, as 
not more than one-half the kernels seemed to vegetate. 
I sowed seed at the rate of about two bushels per 
acre ; but the young plants stood unusually thin on the 
ground — not one of them tillered at all ; the straw grew 
very coarse, the heads were short, the grain shrunken 
and small, and the stems and leaves were so badly 
affected with red rust, that I never cared to repeat 
a similar experiment. 

Greneral R. Harmon writes in relation to the amount 
of seed per acre and time of sowing, that there is 
some difference in opinion as to the quantity required 
to be sown to the acre : first, we must take into con- 
sideration the soil, its quality (for on that much de- 
pends), and the time of sowing — on clay loam soils, the 
first week in September is the best time for this section 



THE WHEAT CULTmiST. 



267 



of the State. It is important to have it take a good 
root before winter, and if sown earlier, the % is very 
apt to destroy some of it in the fall ; and if it should be 
so large as to nearly cover the ground the last of Octo- 
ber, it should be eaten off by cattle or sheep, as it is 
less liable to be injured by deep snows. Here one bushel 
of seed to the acre, is as good as more on soils in good 
condition ; if sown ten days later, add one peck more 
seed per acre. On sandy, gravelly loams, the second 
week in September is the most favorable time for sow- 
ing; if earlier, the fly is very apt to affect it, so as to 
diminish the crop. Wheat, on such soils, appears to suf- 
fer more from the fly, than on clay soils. On these 
soils, one bushel per acre, and if the soil is not in good 
condition, one peck more should be sown. The White 
Flint spreads or tillers more than the common varieties ; 
and when I have sown a bushel and a half the second 
week in September, it was too thick, the straw fine, the 
heads short, and the berry not as large and fine as it 
would have been, if one peck less had been sown to the 
acre. There is one advantage in sowing thick on soils 
where it is subject to be affected by rust : it will ripen two 
or three days earlier. That is an important consider- 
ation on soils unfavorable to the early ripening of wheat. 

William E. Schuyler, Michigan, recorded the follow- 
ing suggestions in reference to the time of sowing winter 
wheat in that State : 

''It is evident from reports received from other sec- 
tions of the State, that in several counties the crop mil 
not be more than half the usual average. There is reason 
to fear that early sown wheat will again suffer from the 
fall attacks of this insect, unless, as is sometimes the 
case, it has been followed up and nearly exterminated 



268 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



bj its parasitic enemies. It is to be hoped that farmers 
who last year finished sowing in Angust and the first 
of September, will consnlt their true interests by defer- 
ring the work till a later period in the month. I am 
aware that in endeavoring to escape one calamity it is 
advisable, if possible, to avoid the opposite evil. 

" On stiff, tenacious clay loams, especially when not 
thoroughly underdrained, wheat sown after the month 
of September, is liable to be injured by the winter and 
spring frosts ; or if carried safely through the winter, 
protected by its mantle of snow, it is more endangered 
by the attacks of the spring fiy, it not being sufficiently 
vigorous to outgrow the effects of the injury. Late 
sown sandy soils, also, when not properly tilled, are still 
more exposed to the attacks of this spring generation. 
In districts where the midge prevails, it is all-important 
that sowing should not be at so late a period as to re- 
tard the ripening of the crop. It is a fact, however, no 
doubt familiar to every careful, observing farmer, that 
under the same conditions of the land there is scarcely 
any difference in the ripening of wheat sown in the 
first or third week of September. There seems, there- 
fore, to be a necessity for selecting a medium period for 
sowing as the best protection against the fly, avoiding at 
the same time other evils incident to the late sowing. 

" A single frost is supposed to destroy all the insects 
while in the state of the fly. There is, consequently, 
no danger to be apprehended if the wheat is not sown 
nor up until after an autumnal frost. In seasons, 
therefore, when the fly is known to be prevalent, it 
would doubtless be the safer plan to defer sowing until 
even the last week in September, should not a sharp 
frost in the mean time occur. In the climate of Michi- 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



269 



gan we seldom escape a frost throngh the montli of Sep- 
tember. Last season was one of those exceptions that 
will sometimes occur in general rules, the effects whereof 
cannot be guarded against. If my recollection is right, 
there was no perceptible frost throughout the month of 
September, and I have no doubt that the present crop 
of wheat was materially injured by the insect in conse- 
quence of the very warm and unseasonable weather in 
October and part of iTovember, the very early sown 
fields, of comse, suffering the most." 

J. S. Gesner, of Canada "West, in a prize article on 
the culture of wheat, says : " I have found the last week 
in August and the first week in September, to be the 
best period for sowing winter wheat in this locality. It 
is useless to sow any variety — except the Mediterranean 
— ^in this vicinity, later in the season than the time just 
mentioned." 

J. Homes, of Chittenden, Yermont, writes : I know 
of no better mode to prevent the ravages of the midge 
than early sowing, and even this sometimes fails. The 
last week in August, or the first in September, I would 
prefer, but this depends upon circumstances ; if the 
weather is dry and hot, I would rather wait until Octo- 
ber. Some years since I made an experiment to test 
early and late sowing. One piece was sowed the last 
week in August, one the last week in September, and 
one in the middle of October, on the same kind of soil, 
and treated in every respect alike. There was no difier- 
ence in the time of ripening or in the quality of the 
grain ; but the earliest sowed produced the longest 
heads, consequently yielded more per acre. 

Hon. Isaac N'ewton, Commissioner of Agriculture, 
recorded the following facts touching the influence of 



2Y0 THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 

the frosts of winter on wheat that was sowed at differ- 
ent periods, and which had attained greater growth in 
one instance than in the other. He says : " During the 
winter, the first or September sowing of the premium 
white Mediterranean wheat withstood the winter very 
badly, and during the severe frost in the month of Jan- 
nary, it was entirely killed ; whereas the same wheat 
sown in October withstood the winter much better than 
the red bearded Mediterranean wheat, kept ahead the 
whole season, and was harvested on the 27th of June. 
This seems to be a wheat well adapted to this climate, 
large berry, well filled and thin skinned ; produced 
forty-eight bushels per acre. The red bearded Mediter- 
ranean wheat sown in October did not stand the severe 
frost so well as the same kind sown in September, show- 
ing that the best period for sowing the red bearded 
Mediterranean wheat is September, and for the premium 
white Mediterranean, from Port Mahon, is October. 
The Tappahannock wheat has been the earliest of all 
the varieties experimented with, although it does not 
seem to be so productive as some of the other kinds ; 
still the fine quality of the grain, and its earliness, is 
very much to be regarded, as an early variety is much 
less liable to disease and other contingencies." 

Sowing Spring Wheat Eaely vs. Late. 

I have observed, for many years past, that wheat-grow- 
ing farmers seem to be about equally divided, touching the 
best time to sow spring wheat. A part of our farmers 
contend that the seed should be put in very early in the 
spring, even before the growing season has really com- 
menced. And if the soil is not sufiiciently dry, plough 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



271 



and sow in the mud, rather than not pnt in the seed 
early. On the contrary, others contend, that it is better 
to put in the seed quite late in the season, even after 
sowing oats and barley. One party contends that spring 
wheat should be put in before the ground is done freez- 
ing and thawing, as spring frosts greatly improve the 
productiveness of the soil and increase the yield of 
grain. Others insist that all these things are decidedly 
injurious to the crop. 

I think the abettors of these theories are both right 
and both wrong. My own experience leads me to fix 
upon an intermediate period for putting in spring v/heat. 

I am satisfied, that if the ground be put in order soon 
after the growing season has commenced — as soon as 
may be practicable after the soil has become sufficiently 
warm to cause germination and growth — that the crop 
of wheat will be more satisfactory, than if the seed were 
sowed very early, or rather late. Whether other farm- 
ers will admit the assertion or not, I am satisfied that 
cold, frosty weather often injures young wheat plants, 
more seriously than most people are aware of. After 
the young plants have appeared, and a cold, stormy pe- 
riod ensues, the leaves turn yellow, cease to grow for 
several weeks, become stunted, and will never produce 
so much grain, as if those same plants had received no 
check in their growth. If the seed be put in late, the 
growth is liable to be too rapid and too luxuriant ; and 
the consequence is, that the crop is seldom so satisfac- 
tory, as if the seeding had been attended to a few days 
earlier in the season. Late sowed wheat may — as it 
often has — succeeded well ; but the same crop would 
doubtless have been much better, had the seed been put 
in a few days earlier. I do not think that the advocates 



272 



THE 'S\'HEAT CrLTUEIST. 



of late seeding have tested the result of seeding earlier. 
As their land produced a bonntifol crop, thev corodude 
that the yield is heavier than it wonld have been if the 
seed had been sowed at a former period. ^roof of 

the pndding is in eating it ; and not in chewing the string 
of the pndding bag. 

Eaklt vs. Late Seedixg rs" Massachtsetts. 

An experienced wheat-grower in Massachnsetts writes : 
" I never had any luck in late sowing spring wheat, nor 
did I ever see a good piece, sown as late as the 25th of 
May. Last year was an exception to late sown grain, 
which we seldom have. The di'onght injm-ed early sown 
grain fall as much, if not more, than late sown in this 
section. Even om- late planted com was a larger growth, 
and was perfectly sound. Late sown wheat in ordinary 
seasons, will not be as plump as that sown early. The 
straw is more apt to be weak and to crinkle down by 
the late rains, and will tm-n black, and is more likely to 
rust. There is more risk in harvesting, to get it in a 
good condition for the mow. Xot so with early sown. 
The kernel is plump, the head well nlled, the straw 
bright and stiff ; and the grain will thrash a great deal 
easier ; and you will have more bushels from a given 
quantity of ground. The earlier it is sown, if the 
ground is dry and the weather suitable, the better. I 
had rather my wheat would be sown the 25th of March 
if it could be got in as early, than to be put off till the 
25th of May. We have had a heavy freeze on eai'ly sown 
wheat, and no detriment at all. The 25th of April, 
and from that to the 5th of May, is. in my opinion, the 
best time to sow spring wheat." 



THE WHEAT CFLTUEIST. 



273 



A correspondent of the " Rural E^ew Yorker" wrote on 
this subject : " The reason why spring wheat growing is 
attended with such ill success in Western ]^ew York is 
that the fallow was not fall ploughed, and consequeutlj 
is sown too late in the spring." The great secret of 
success in growing a bountiful crop of spring wheat is 
the proper management of the soil, the main point being 
to plough and fallow in the fall, or before the ground 
is too hard frozen in winter, so that the wheat may be 
sown as early in April as the spring rains will admit. 

Many farmers who succeeded so early in growing a 
crop of wheat from the scarified virgin soil in the early 
days of Western Kew York, now think that the deteri- 
oration in that cereal is owing to the exhaustion of a 
m^^sterious pabulum in the soil. Yet, to grow a good 
crop of barley, requires a finer tilth and a less adhesive 
soil than for wheat. 

J. B. Lawes, the prince of England's experimenters 
on the farm, avers " that he could supply fertilizers to 
the wheat fallow to produce a given crop of wheat to 
the acre, subject only to the risk of hail and violent 
storms." But in England the wheat plant rarely if ever 
freezes out, as it often does in winter and early spring 
in the United States, California and the South excepted. 
It is the freezing out of this plant that prevents the 
western farmers of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa from 
sowing winter wheat. But they have reduced the sow- 
ing of spring wheat, as a substitute, into a perfect sys- 
tem that rarely fails to succeed if well done. (Read mv 
notes about spring wheat under the last heading of the 
second chapter of this book, and How Freezing aud 
Thawing of the Soil injures Growing Wheat, pages 123, 
124, and 125. ) 

12* 



274 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



Thick and Thin Seeding. 

Wheat can be sowed too thick as well as too thin. 
Of course, then, there is a correct quantity to sow per 
acre, as there must necessarily be a medium between the 
thick seeding and thin seeding. The quantity of seed 
alone does not determine how much should be sown on 
one acre, as the kernels vary in size. If the kernels be 
very large, a much larger quantity of seed will be re- 
quired to seed an acre, than if the kernels were very 
small. There is more dano-er of sowins^ too much seed 
on an acre, than there is of scattering too little. When 
wheat is sowed too thin, provision has been made by 
nature, to send out numerous stems, from the single 
plants that spring from every kernel. (See this subject 
explained under the head of the Habit of the Wheat 
Plant.) Seed wheat is often sowed in such absurdly 
large quantities, per acre, that the soil does not yield 
but a little more than half the number of bushels that 
would have been produced, had just enough been sowed 
and no more. It is exceedingly unwise policy to sow 
wheat, or any other grain thick, for the purpose of 
smothering a dense growth of noxious plants. 

J. J. Mechi, of England, who has had much experi- 
ence in growing wheat, writes, that one kernel in a hole, 
at intervals of nine inches by four, would, under favor- 
able circumstances, be ample, and produce much more 
than if four times that number were sown ; but then we 
have rooks,rrench partridges, birds, mice, and wireworms 
to contend with." It would be a very dangerous experi- 
ment to sow generally so small a quantity of seed as 
one peck per acre. In highly cultivated, warm, mellow 
soils, free from weeds and in good heart, where harvest is 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



275 



ready by the first of August or earlier, sucli small quan 
titles may be sown, provided the sowing is done early. 

Thin sowing is the first cause of large and vigorous 
ears to select from. On this point, there can be no 
mistake, seeing that thick sowing has an exactly reverse 
effect, diminishing and crippling the growth of the ear, 
until, with extreme quantities, there is scarcely a good 
kernel, or a good ear. Therefore, in order to get good 
ears to select from, or to be certain of the largest possible 
yield of grain, sow only a moderate quantitj- per acre. I 
think that every intelligent wheat-grower will agree with 
me, that thin sowing has quite as much or more to do 
with a large product of superior grain, as the choice of 
a prolific variety. Xo rule can be laid down that will 
serve as a reliable guide for farmers in various portions of 
the country in determining the quantity of wheat per acre. 
For this reason, I shall not attempt to state how much 
this farmer, or that wheat-grower, should sow per acre. 
In a letter dated June 27th, Mr. M. says : 
" I related last year that a peck of seed wheat per acre, 
dibbled at intervals of about 4^ inches, one kernel in a 
hole, produced fifty-eight bushels of heavy wheat per acre, 
and 2f tons of straw ; in fact, the thickest and heaviest 
crop of corn and straw on my farm. It was seen at 
various periods of its growth by many agricultural and 
other visitors. During winter, a single stem only hav- 
ing appeared from each kernel, the land at a distance 
appeared as if unsown, and we were often asked why we 
had omitted to drill that particular portion of the field. 
In the spring each stem radiated its shoots horizontally, 
to the extent in some instances of thirty to forty-eight 
stems, and ultimately became the best crop on the farm, 
and, which is often convenient in harvesting, about 



276 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRTST. 



four days later than the thick sown put in, in October, 
at the same time as the rest of the field was drilled with 
one bnshel per acre. In October last, rather late in the 
month, we repeated the experiment on a heavy-land 
clover lea, as last year. The ground was rough and 
hard, and very dry, and although a kernel was placed in 
each hole, only about one-half, or half a peck per acre, 
came up. Of course we anticipated a partial failure, 
but spring came, and each stem threw out horizontally 
a large number of shoots, so that now it is admitted by 
all who see it that it will exceed in produce the adjoin- 
ing crop, drilled at one bushel per acre. It appears to 
be about four or five days later than the rest." 

After inviting all interested to come and examine this 
crop for themselves, Mr. M. concludes : " According 
to Mr. Cau'd, the average increase of our corn crops is 
eight for one — one million quarters of seed to produce 
nine millions of corn ! This is discreditable to us, for 
surely one good seed in properly cultivated soil cannot 
produce so little, if it be allowed sufiicient space to de- 
velop its growth. Forty to one is nearer the increase 
on my farm." 

Quantity or Seed pek Acre. 

The quantity of wheat sowed on an acre by one 
farmer, is no guide at all to his neighbor, unless the 
soil is similar in all respects, and the period of seeding 
about the same. Eich land does not require so large a 
c[uantity as poor ground. When the kernels are large, 
the quantity of seed must be increased ; and when they 
are small, the amount may be diminished, and still have 
just as many stalks on an acre. Kernels of wheat vary 



THE WHEAT CULTTIEIST. 



2Y7 



so much in size tliat figures expressing the number of 
grains in a bushel only mislead and confuse a beginner. 
I have in mind one farmer who counted the number of 
kernels in a quart of wheat ; and from the number in 
one quart estimated the number of grains in a bushel to 
be 559,288. Another man made 660,000 kernels in one 
American bushel of wheat ; and another 690,960. 

I have raised excellent wheat where only one bushel 
of seed was sowed per acre. My practice was to sow 
two bushels of wheat per acre ; and to drill in one and 
a half bushels per acre. In some instances, I was satis- 
fied that the grain stood rather too thick on the ground. 
If the ground is rich, one bushel per acre, if ])ut in 
evenly with a good drill, is all the seed that should be 
put on one acre. Every farmer should try experiments, 
for the purpose of ascertaining how much seed will yield 
the largest amount of grain per acre. If he can satisfy 
himself that he can secure a large yield by putting two 
bushels of seed on one acre, that is the quantity for him 
to sow. The quantity of seed varies, the country 
through. Yery few farmers sow three bushels of seed 
per acre ; and fewer still sow only one bushel. The 
majority, I think, sow or drill in about one and a half 
bushels per acre. Observe the quantity of seed per 
acre, as stated by the various authors of letters on the 
culture of wheat in various parts of the country in our 
agricultural periodicals. 

The most sensible way to arrive at a correct conclu- 
sion on this subject, is, to weigh the grain that grows 
on a square yard, where the straw seems to stand very 
thick as well as where it is thin. Every farmer must 
study out the correct quantity of seed for his own soil. 

In order to aid be2:inners in their investio^ations of 



278 THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 

this subject, I herewith give a table which was prepared 
a few years ago, for ''Facts for Farmers." 

square'foot. s^u™e yard. ^^^^^^^ P^^ 

4 36 171240=1 peck. 

8 72 34S,480=2 pecks. 

12 108 522,720=3 pecks. 

16 144 696,960=4 pecks. 

32 288 1,393,420=8 pecks. 

48 432 2,090,880=3 bushels. 

64 576 2,787,840=4 bushels. 

80 720 3,428,800=5 bushels. 



If a square foot be divided into four equal parts, and 
one kernel of wheat be planted in the middle of each 
section, if the wheat be of ordinary size, it will require 
about one peck of grain per acre. By dividing each 
square foot into sixteen sections, three inches square, 
and planting one kernel in the centre of each section, 
about one bushel of seed will be required per acre. 
But, if seed wheat were drilled in or sowed broadcast, 
as thick as this estimate, the growing plants will be 
found to stand as thickly as they should be in order to 
grow advantageously, and jield abundantly. 

The beginner can enlarge, at pleasure, on these sug- 
gestions, as everything seems to be quite indefinite, 
after making our most satisfactory estimates. 

What Becomes of the Seed. 

Intelligent cultivators of soil, from time immemorial, 
have asked this question with much solicitude. From 
my early boyhood, to the present time, I have been on 
the lookout for a philosophical answer to this inquiry ; 



THE WHEAT CULTURTST. 



279 



but have met with none. I shall attempt to give a phi- 
losophical, and I trust, a satisfactory answer. Farmers 
do hnow one thing ^ concerning which there is no guess- 
work — no uncertainty — which is, that all the seed sown 
does not grow. Therefore, what becomes of it, is an 
important inquiry. 

A portion of seed wheat never germinates ; because 
the germ of some of the kernels has been injured, and 
thus deprived of all vitality. Kernels of wheat are in- 
jured, sometimes when the grain is thrashed ; and in 
numerous instances, the kernels sprout before the grain 
is garnered. The tender sprouts perish in the sunsk'ne, 
when the wheat is dried ; but the kernels appear chang'^d 
little, if any. Yet, the germs are destroyed. Of course, 
if such grain be employed for seed, it never comes uo. 
Much of the good seed also never comes up, for the fo'- 
lowiug reasons : In some instances, the grain is buried 
so deep, that the substance of the kernels which pro- 
duces the stem, is all exhausted, before reaching the sur- 
face of the ground. Of course, all such kernels will 
never come up. Some other kernels are deposited in 
an unfavorable place, surrounded with lumps and stones, 
where they sprout, but fail to grow. Birds pick up a 
share before the grain is buried in the seed-bed. In- 
sects take a share ; and where several kernels happen 
to be planted so closely together that all cannot grow, 
for want of space, a portion of the young plants must 
cease to grow, and at length fail and die. The young 
leaves of wheat, soon after they appear above ground, 
are very tender and good for birds of various kinds, 
which often bite oif large numbers of the stems, close 
to the surface of the ground. Such plants seldom re- 
cover from the injury thus received. In numerous 



280 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



instances, a tliousand crows, or pigeons, descend on a 
field of wheat, and destroy one fonrtli part of the yonng 
plants. Domestic fowls are frequently allowed to range 
over wheat fields, when they destroy plants sufficient to 
make bushels of grain. I might mention other maraud- 
ers that commit depredations on the growing wheat. 
But these must suffice. 

How TO Kaise Eakly Graix or Yegetables. 

On the subject of raising plants that mature early, a 
practical farmer wrote in the " Independent " as follows : 

m localities where seasons are comparatively short — 
where late frost is liable to cut down the young plants, 
and early frost to damage the fruit or grain — it is of 
great importance that seed for future crops be raised and 
secured with great care. It will require the exercise of 
much good care for many successive years to efiect any 
remarkably good change in any crop with reference to 
its early maturity. But, on the contrary, by exercising 
no care, it will be easy to manage in -such a manner as 
to have plants mature very late in the season, and at 
the same time to yield an inferior crop. If we desire 
to have crops ripen early, we may have the pleasure of 
seeing om- efforts to secure such a result crowned with 
good success. But if that is a subject which gives us 
but little anxiety, our contented desires will be satisfied 
by seeing our crops come to maturity long after our 
enterprising neighbors have harvested their fields of 
grain. 

I^ow, if we desire to raise early grain, or early vege- 
tables of any kind, we must select the seed that ripens 
the very first. The first ripe panicles of carrot seed and 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



281 



parsnip seed, the first ripe pods of beans, peas, or other 
leguminous plants, and the first ripe pods of turnip seed, 
if selected carefully every year, will efi'ect a very desir- 
able improvement in the crop, both in its excellence as 
to quantity and quality, as well as in the period of early 
maturity. But by planting the half-ripe and late seed 
the crop will degenerate very rapidly. 

By planting only a small part of the seed-end of pota- 
toes for several successive seasons where they will receive 
the best of cultivation, a kind of potato may be pro- 
duced that will be fit to dig several weeks before those 
potatoes would mature that are treated in the usual way. 
These considerations hold good concerning the entire 
vegetable kingdom; and the young farmer may avail 
himself of very great advantages arising from them, if 
he will commence in good time. By saving the first 
ripe seed from year to year, all our early vegetables and 
grain have been brought to their present excellence ; and 
if the first ripe seed be not carefully saved from year to 
year, we cannot reasonably expect our crops will ripen 
early, nor remunerate us for the labor bestowed in their 
cultivation. 



Suggestions aeout Seed Wheat. 

No farmer can reasonably expect to raise a bountiful 
crop of superior wheat from inferior seed, even if his soil 
be well adapted to the production of this kind of cereal 
grain, having been fertilized and cultivated in the most 
thorough manner. The legitimate tendency of every 
seed possessing natality, in the vegetable as well as in 
the animal kingdom, is to produce others like itself; and 
it is not a common occurrence for animals to beget, or 



282 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



for seeds to produce others of their kind, superior to 
themselves ; for it is not practicable for animals or plants 
to transmit to their offspring excellent characteristics 
and qualities which they never possessed, and which have 
not been common to their progenitors. 

Excellent wheat may be raised from shrunken kernels 
of inferior size, by selecting the best grains for seed for 
several successive seasons. Yet the improvement in 
grain the first season will be hardly perceptible. Wheat, 
as well as Indian corn, will hybridize when different 
varieties are grown in close proximity ; and, though a 
mongrel grain may yield as many bushels per acre as a 
pure kind of seed, still such seed will not be so good for 
producing another crop as if the grain had not been 
mixed. For this reason, mixed grain should be rejected 
for seed; and none sowed except such kinds as have 
been grown with great care for several successive 
seasons. That farmer who practises selecting his seed 
wheat from year to year, as most people gather their 
Indian corn which is designed for seed the next season, 
will always raise more bountiful crops of better grain 
than he could produce on the same soil, with cultivation 
equally as good, by using seed that has not been saved 
with special reference to a future crop. When a large 
crop of wheat is all thrashed together, the grain of the 
small, half-ripe heads is by no means suitable for seed. 
For this reason, many farmers meet with great disap- 
pointment in their crop of spring wheat. They sowed 
poor, half-ripe, shrunken kernels, with the confident ex- 
pectation that the yield of new grain would most 
assuredly be of a superior quality. 

If seed wheat is only of a common quality, with many 
inferior kernels among the grain, before seed-time, the 



THE WHEAT CrXTTSIST. 



283 



whole of it should be run tlirougli a good fanning-inill, 
having sieves and screens with meshes of suitable size to 
separate the large kernels from the small ones, as the 
latter will yield quite as good iiour. although such grain 
is not so good for seed. 

In every plant of wheat, barley, or oats, there is 
always one best ear, and in every ear there is always one 
best DTain, which is that one found at the followino- 
harvest to produce the best plant, all the grains having 
been planted in competition with each other. 

The best of all the competing plants of any "family'' 
of a cereal is ascertained by the most studious comparison 
of the good qualities they visibly present, and of the 
notes of the peculiarities exhibited by each during the 
whole course of its growth, such as — the rapidity with 
which the parent seed germinates ; the manner, time, 
and extent of the "tillering*' of the plant; the periods 
of its earing, blooming, and ripening ; its power of with- 
standing disease, frost, wet ; the toughness of its straw, 
and any other characteristics which are essential to form- 
ing a correct decision, and which cannot be determined, 
except by a careful observation of the plant during its 
entire growth, until the grain is fully matured. 

We very frequently discover a head of wheat, a few 
panicles of oats, a few pods of peas, and such-like, which 
have come to maturity, while the great bulk of the crop 
remains quite green. Kow, could this seed be carefully 
preserved and planted by itself, we should perceive a 
decided improvement in the next crop, not only in the 
time of maturing, but in the superior quahty of the grain 
or vegetables which sprang from the seed. TTere 
farmers of our country to practise saving their seed 
grain, the wealth of the nation might be doubled. 



I 



284 THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



The Peoper Depth to Cover Wheat. 

I believe that everj intelligent farmer will admit that 
wheat may be sowed too shallow, as well as too deep. 
A thinner covering is required in a close heavy soil, than 
in one light, gravelly, or sandy. The following experi- 
ments were made by Petri, the results of which would 
vary with the moistm^e or dryness of the soil. They 
are given as a sj^ecimen of trials of this kind, which if 
often repeated by farmers, would afford them much val- 
uable information : 

Seed sown to Appeared above Number of plants 

a depth of ground in that came up. 

1-2 inch 11 days 7-8ths. 

1 " 12 aU. 

2 " 18 " 7-8ths. 

3 " 20 6-8tlis. 

4 " 21 " 1-2. 

5 " 22 " 3-8ths. 

6 " 23 " l-8th. 

Judging from the unusually great length of time here 
recorded for the plants in the foregoing experiments to 
come up, I think the seed must have been sowed in 
very dry ground, or the weather must have been very 
cold, as it is extremely uncommon for wheat, or any 
other grain, when planted under circumstances at all 
favorable to vegetation, to be so long coming up. Un- 
der favorable circumstances, wheat will come up in six 
or eight days ; and in warm weather, where the soil is 
tolerably moist, wheat will come up in one week, and 
make leaves so large that the field will appear quite 
green. 

In order to test the comparative influence of plant- 



1 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



285 



mg seed deep and shallow, on the germination of wheat, 
on the 6th of July, 1867, I instituted the following ex- 
periment : I planted eight rows of wheat, a few inches 
apart, with fourteen kernels in each row. The ground 
was in only a moderate degree of fertility, and mellow- 
ness. A dibble about as large as my little finger was 
marked off with cuts one inch apart, from one inch to 
eight. Fourteen holes were made one inch deep, into 
each of which a kernel of grain was dropped, and the 
holes filled with mellow soil. The kernels in the sec- 
ond row, fourteen in number, were planted, or dibbled 
two inches deep. The same number of kernels was 
planted three inches deep, in the third row. The fourth 
row of fourteen kernels was four inches deep. The 
fifth row, five inches deep. The sixth row, six inches 
in depth. The seventh, seven inches deep; and the 
fourteen kernels in the eighth row, were dropped in 
holes eight inches deep ; and all the holes were filled 
with mellow soil ; and every evening, the surface was 
moistened with water from a rose-spout watering-pot. 
Now for the result : 

On the morning of July 11th, four spears had ap- 
peared in the first row, where the kernels were planted 
one inch deep ; and before night, those four stems were 
each more than one inch high. July 12th, in the morn- 
ing, two spears more, in number one, were half an inch 
high. In numbers two and three, the same morning, 
there were two spears in each ; and one spear in number 
two, more than an inch high. On the morning of the 
13th, there were ten spears in number one; four in 
number two ; six in number three ; and two spears in 
number four. In number three one spear was three 
inches high. At sunset of the same day, this last spear 



2S6 



THE WHEAT CULTTIilST. 



was five inches Mgli, having grown two inches in length 
between sunrise and snnset. In number five, at sun- 
down, of the 13th of July, one spear of wheat had come 
up, after sum'ise, and had grown two inches high. In 
number six, one spear had grown one inch high during 
the day. On the 11th of July, in number one. there were 
eleven spears ; in number two, there were seven : in 
number three, eight spears ; in number fom-, five spears ; 
in number five, three spears : in number six, two spears. 
On the morning of the 15th. one spear more appeared 
in number one ; one more in number four ; and one 
more in number six. 

It will be seen by this diary, which I recorded with 
my own pen, that none of the grain was over eight days 
in coming up. After waiting for more than two weeks 
for the plants in number seven, planted seven inches 
deep, and those in number eight, deposited eight inches 
below the sm'face, I removed the soil cai'efully, and 
found a few of the stems neai'ly ready to appeal* above 
the sm'face of the seed-bed. But, out of the twenty- 
eight kernels tliat were planted, half of them seven, and 
the other half eight inches deep, not a vestige could be 
found of only fom', the stems of which were exceeding- 
ly feeble and slender ; and for lack of material to form 
the stem from the kernel to the sm-face, vegetation 
ceased, and the stems died. What ever became of the 
other kernels, seems to be a mystery. 

But the experiment demonstrated one point, most 
conclusively, namely, that if seed wheat be bm*ied too 
deep, the kernels may germinate. But there ^vill not be 
sufficient material in the grain to form a healthful and 
strong stem to the sm'face of the ground. It matters 
not, what becomes of seed planted seven or eight inches 



THE WHEAT CrLTTEIST. 



287 



deep. Experience proves that such grain seldom comes 
lip. This suggests the fallacy of ploiighing-in seed wheat, 
as much of the seed will be buried so deep that the 
stems can never reach the siuiace of the ground. 

Winter grain of all kinds, will endure the influences 
of the freezing and thawing of the soil with far less in- 
jiirj to the growing plants if the seed be put in shallow, 
rather than deep. I have endeavored to make this sub- 
ject intelligible, under the head of Injury to Wheat 
Plants by Freezing and Thawing, on page 12t). 

CrLxrEE or Speixg Wheat. 

There are many erroneous impressions touching the 
culture of spring wheat, which I desire to correct. But, 
I don't know as I can do it. And, I believe I shall not 
make much of an effort to induce men to think, that 
spring wheat will grow luxuriantly, and yield satisfac- 
torily, where a crop of winter wheat can be produced. 
But I Icnow this to be a fact, notwithstanding it has been 
controverted, by some intelligent farmers. More than 
this, I know that under certain circumstances, a bounti- 
ful crop of spiing wheat can be produced, where the 
land, in its present condition, would not yield a crop of 
winter wheat worth harvesting. I record it as a rule 
then, that wherever the land will produce a crop of win- 
ter wheat, spring wheat may be grown most satisfacto- 
rily. 

Touching the subject of the culture of spring wheat, 
the editor of the " Prairie Farmer " wi'ites that " spring 
wheat in the Northwest is comparatively a modern 
crop. Spring- wheat floiii' has one never-failing char- 
acteristic to distinguish it from that of winter wheat : 



2SS 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



the dough is soft, and requires much more kneadiiig 
than that of winter wheat : this occurs from the fact 
that it contains more gluUn than the latter, and conse- 
qnentlv less starch ; it being thns more highlv nitrogen- 
ized. is very valuable for food, perhaps more so than 
winter wheat. The yellow cast to some specimens of 
flom- is due to learded wheat, as the hold varieties pro- 
duce white flom\ The excess of gluten gives the bread 
a more brown appearance than the winter wheat, which 
is nearly pure starch. 

" It may be interesting to many of om* readers to look 
a httle into the history of spring wheat as used, or its 
cultmT. Strictly speaking, we have no natm-al spidng 
wheat : the variety that is called snch is simply an 
artificial variety of winter wheat that can be readily 
changed back to its normal condition. It is well to un- 
derstand this fact, for upon it much may depend. In 
the cnltnre of spring ^vhieat the nearer approach we 
make to treating it as a biennial the better will be the 
crop. To do this, the plant must nndergo a rest — that 
is, at some early period of its growth it should come to 
a stand for a short period. This answers to the natm-al 
condition of the plant. 

'•'Previous to ISoi. little attention was paid to this 
trait in the habit of the plant, most farmers taking it 
for granted that spring wheat was as distinct from that 
of winter as an annual was from a bieuniaL A little 
reflection would, however, show this tblly. TTas spring 
wheat an anntial it would produce good crops when 
so^vn later in the seasuu. say tlu'ough the month of April, 
or after frost has ceased to harden the siu'face. But we 
all know that to produce a good crop we must sow as 
soon as the frost begins to come out. even if we so^r in 



THE WHEAT CrXTTEIST. 



289 



the mud ; it is not safe to wait until tlie ground settles. 
Shonld a cold snaj? come so as to freeze the gronnd a 
foot deep, all the better ; the wheat will come forward 
with more vigor, and produce a better crop — in fact, 
the crop can be sown just as it freezes up in December, 
or at any time when the ground is thawed to the depth 
of two inches, in Januarr or TebruarT. The oat, which 
is strictly an annual, cannot be treated in this manner, 
neither can any other annual farm ci'op. It is true that 
some of the seeds of annual grains will remain sound 
thi'ough the winter, but should they be started by warm 
weather, the plants die. Xot so of spring wheat when 
sown ; cold and warm weather follows so as to S23rout 
the seed ; the plants lire thi-ough the winter, and thus 
return to the normal condition. This lets us into the 
secret of the success of the early sown spring wheat, 
giving it, to a great extent, the condition of a biennial 
plant. The occasional freezing spells that occur after 
germinating arrest growth for a time, giving it a sort of 
hybernation answering all the pm-poses of a long winter 
without subjecting the plant to sudden changes after 
the roots have run deep into the soil, as in the case with 
winter wheat sown in August or September, the break- 
ing of which destroys the plant.'' (See page 126.) 



The Dlffeeexce Explained. 

The foregoing suggestions are orthodox ; yet, they 
need a little explanation. The young plants of certain 
varieties of spring wheat, are as tender as growing oats, 
and frost will injure them as soon and as severely, as 
freezing will damage young oat plants. This applies to 
such spring wheat as has been so thoroughlv changed 

13 



290 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



from a winter, to a spring grain that the plants will not 
endnre severe freezing. Spring wheat of this charac- 
ter, should never be sowed until the ground has become 
thoroughly warmed. This accounts for the fact, that in 
numerous instances, certain farmers have always had 
better success when they have sowed their spring wheat 
quite late in the spring. On the contrary, when a va- 
riety of spring wheat is still so much of a winter wheat, 
that freezing does not injure the young plants in the 
spring, the seed should be put in as early as practica- 
ble ; and the crop will be the better for early seeding. 

These thoughts will explain why it is best to sow 
spring wheat very late, sometimes j and early in the 
growing season, at other times. A farmer must know 
his seed — of what sort it is. Then, he must understand, 
most thoroughly, the habit of growth, and how far the 
variety has been changed from a winter to a spring 
grain. When he possesses a perfect understanding of 
these" points, he will experience very little difficulty in 
growing fair crops of spring wheat, provided his seed is 
right. (Read pages lYO and 171.) 

Monroe's Rotary Harrow. 

The harrow herewith illustrated, represents an imple- 
ment invented by H. H. Monroe, Rockland, Maine, and 
manufactured by " The American Agricultural Works," 
Tenth avenue and Twenty-fourth street, ITew York 
city. The arms of this harrow are all united at the 
centre, and a circular way made of a flat bar of iron 
is bolted to each arm, near the outer extremity. An 
iron wheel travels on this way when the harrow is in 
motion. The object of the iron wheel is to press the 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



291 



teeth on one side of the harrow into the soil farther 
than the teeth enter on the opposite side. The harrow 
is drawn hj the arm that is 
bolted to the centre of the 
implement. As the teeth 
on the side where the wheel 
isj take a ranker hold of the 
ground than the teeth of the 
opposite side, the teeth that 
enter the ground the deep- 
est, hold that side of the har- 
row back, while the other 
side is drawn forward. By 
this means, the harrow has 
a compound movement — a 
motion forward and a rotary 
motion. The harrow can 
be made to rotate in either 
direction by changing the 
travelling wheel. The arm 
that supports the travelling 
wheel is secured to the mid- 
dle of the harrow in such a 
manner that the wheel can 
be placed on either side of 
the harrow. In harrowing 
along a hollow, or dead 
furrow, this harrow can be 
made to rotate toward the 
lowest place, so as to fill it 
up with sods and lumps. 
When harrowing sod ground, the harrow can be made 
to rotate the same way the furrow slices are turned, or 




Fig. 37.— Monroe's Eotary Harrow. 



292 



THE WHEAT CTJLTmilST. 



in the opposite direction. Tlie teeth never clog ; and 
for harrowing in any kind of grain, this style of harrow 
is far superior to the ordinary harrow, becanse this will 
not crowd the seed into rows, like the harrow that 
moyes straight forward. 

Speing Wheat eequiees IVIa^ttee. 

In the culture of spring wheat, whatever may be the 
variety, thorough and re]3eated ploughing, with the appli- 
cation of rich manures, putting in the seed evenly, and 
then using the harrow or drill for covering it, are the 
conditions to be fulfilled by man. Then, unless the 
season should prove to be very unpropitious, a remuner- 
ative crop may be expected. Let this system of thorough 
cultivation become general, and you will not then hear 
very often of the faihrre of the wheat crop. A few 
farmers are pursuing this com'se of thorough tillage. 
They devote only a few acres to wheat, but expend a 
large amount on the cultivation of these few acres. 
And the result is, just what any sensible man might ex- 
pect, a bountiful crop rewarding all their toil. The 
time is doubtless coming, when a kind of necessity may 
compel many a farmer to adopt a similar course, if he 
wishes to have good bread to eat. 

In England and Southern Scotland, wheat has been 
successfully and profitably cultivated for centuries. 
Why may it not in these United States, if similar pains 
are taken ? Almost all our farms contain at least a few 
acres on which wheat might be sown and a profitable 
harvest gathered, if proper cultivation were bestowed 
on it. Barely ploughing the ground once or twice, and 
then harrowing in the seed sown, are by no means 



THE WHEAT CTJLTmiST. 



293 



enough. Let me repeat the oft-reiterated suggestion, 
that wheat, whether winter or spring grain, requires a 
kind of mineral manure that will reproduce grain^ and 
not straw. 

Joseph Harris, of Rochester, I^ew York, writes on 
this subject : " The introduction of turnip culture and 
drill husbandry into England banished summer fallows 
from all but the heaviest clay soils. There was good 
reason for this : the turnips required and received extra 
cultivation. As soon as the wheat crop is harvested, 
the land is scarified and ploughed in the autumn, and 
two or three times in the spring, and rolled and har- 
rowed, and scarified, till it is as free from weeds and as 
mellow as an ash heap ; then the turnips are sown in 
drills from two to two and a half feet apart. The plants 
are singled out by hand-hoes in the rows, from twelve 
to fifteen inches apart, and the horse-hoe is kept con- 
stantly going between the rows, and the haud-hoe when- 
ever necessary. In this way the land is as efiectually 
cleaned and mellowed as if it had been summer-fallowed. 
Hence turnips have been appropriately termed a ' fal- 
low crop.' But we have as yet no such fallow crop in 
America. I am aware that Indian corn is sometimes 
called a ' fallow crop,' because, like turnips, it admits 
the use of the horse-hoe ; but it is not, strictly speaking, 
a fallow or renovating crop, because it impoverishes the 
soil of the same plant food as the wheat crop requires. 
So much has been said in England against summer fal- 
lows, and these opinions have been reiterated so often 
by the agricultural press of this country, for the last 
thirty years, that there is a very general opinion that 
summer fallows are unnecessary. This impression, while 
it may have done some good, has also done considerable 



294 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



harm. Farmers have neglected their summer fal- 
lows." 

The Conclusion of "Wheat Growing. 

'Now, if our farmers would only regard their own 
most important interests, and the interests of those 
who may cultivate the soil after them, every sheep, 
every swine, and every bullock would be put in excel- 
lent condition for the slaughter-house before leaving the 
farm. Then there would, necessarily, be something left 
behind to maintain the fertility of the soil, and thus 
produce more abundant crops of grain and larger and 
fatter cattle the next season. 

Were I asked by a farmer on the cold soil of Maine 
how to produce wheat there, I would say, raise mutton. 
Were the same question propounded by a Canadian, I 
would answer, make mutton, and apply the manure to 
the soil. Were the farmers of the West to inquire how 
to raise better crops of wheat, from year to year, instead 
of poorer yields, which is now the rule, still my answer 
would be, make mutton, by feeding coarse grain and 
turnips. This is what the farmers of our country must 
eventually come to — making mutton — before they can 
expect to produce such crops of wheat as once grew on 
our virgin soils. By making mutton from year to year, 
and applying the manure thus produced by the sheep, 
farmers will learn that they will receive more money 
from their flocks, and the yield of grain will increase 
from year to year, instead of diminishing. 

Some chemists tell us that ammoniacal fertilizers 
should always be covered up with a little earth, to pre- 
vent loss by evaporation. This is correct. On the 
contrary, they state that such fertilizers as lime and 



THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



295 



potash, or ashes, should be spread on the surface, be- 
cause such heavy fertilizing material has a tendency to 
work downward into the soil. The main point, in. my 
own estimation is, to make rich manure, and cover 
it with a thin dressing of soil. J. Harris says, " There 
is not enough amr)wnia in a ton of such stuff as many 
farmers call manure, to mahe hartshorn enough for a 
lady^s smelling -hottle !! ! Instead of ploughing in so 
much clover for wheat, then, let us convert it into wool 
and mutton ; and if we can give our sheep peas, or 
beans, or oilcake in addition, it will tell wonderfully on 
the manure, and on the crops to which it is applied." 

The illustration herewith given represents a new and 
eminently useful coulter, to prevent clogging when 
ploughing stubble ground, or when turning under 
coarse mamn-e or 
clover — invented by 
M. A. Spink, Eensse- 
laer Falls, JSTewYork, 
and sold also by R. 
H. Allen & Co., 189 
Water street, New 
York city. It can be 
readily attached to 
the beam of almost 
any plough, with the 
same fastening that 
is required to secure 
an ordinary coulter 
in the desired posi- 
tion. The shank of the coulter should stand perpen- 
dicularly on the beam of the plough, as represented by 
the illustration. The upper part of the blade is made as 




Fig. 88. — Spink's Anti-clogging Coulter. 



296 



THE WHEAT CULTURiST. 



represented by the figure, with the upper point bending 
over to the left three or four inches from a line with the 
shank. As the stubble or coarse manure is forced up 
along the edge of the blade, it is conveyed to the left of 
the shank and falls off the point of the blade, instead of 
being gathered beneath the beam to clog the plough. 

The Star Cultivator. 

In some sections of country where wheat is cultivated 
to considerable extent, farmers like such an implement 
for preparing the ground, as is represented by the 




Fig. 89.— The Star Cultivator. 



accompanying illustration of a combined cultivator and 
seed-drill, which is manufactured by Ewell & Co., Bal- 
timore, Maryland. In the next chapter tliis cultivator is 
shown with the roller and seeding apparatus attached. 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



297 



In this figure the roller and seed-box are not repre- 
sented ; but in the place of the roller two gauge- wheels 
appear. The implement needs little or no explanation, 
as the cut gives a fair idea of the various parts. The 
ploughs regulate themselves, as to depth ; and by means 
of the cam lever, thej may be raised entirely out of the 
ground in an instant, or made to run at any desired 
depth. 



Cahoon's Hakd Grain Sower. 

The illustration given in connection with this article 
represents a person sowing seed wdth one of Cahoon's 




Fig. 40.— a Hand Sower. 



sowers, for distributing any kind of grain, broadcast, by 
means of liand machinery, which the laborer carries, 

13* 



298 



THE WHEAT CrLTTEIST. 



working it as lie travels over the field. The grain is 
carried in a receptacle to which the machinery is 
attached. At one side of the machine is a distributing 
wheel, with arms, or flanges, which play in the issne of 
the grain receptacle. TThen the machine is not in 
motion the grain cannot flow ont ; but, as soon as the 
crank is tnrned, the grain is scattered broadcast in front 
of the sijwer. If every part of the machine is made per- 
fectly, and if the operator can exercise mechanical skill 
in managing ditflcnlt machinery, he can sow grain evenly 
and rapidly with snch a seed sower. 

Bnt there are some diflicnlties attending the manage- 
ment of snch a grain sower, to which it is proper for me 
to allnde. so that a farmer may nnderstand exactly what 
he is pnreliasing. when he procnres one of this style of 
machines. There is the same liability to scatter seed 
nnevenly with this sower as when sowing broadcast by 
hand. If the operator does not walk exactly at a uniform 
o-ait. and if he does not keep his body in a steady posi- 
tion, without wriggling, and does not turn the crank at 
a nnifurni velocity, he will not be likely to sow the 
seed as evenly as it should be. By turning the body 
only a little either way. from a dii'ect. straightforward 
course, the direction of the falling grain will be changed 
very much. By tm-ning the crank faster, the grain will 
be distriljuted over a wider breadth of land. A skiltul 
operator will regulate the motion of the crank by his 
steps. 

A more complete description of this seed sower may 
betbimd in E. II. Allen Co.'s catalogue of his agricul- 
tural implements, 1S9 TTater Street, Xew York city, 
price $1. It is sold also by The Ames Plough Com- 
pany," 53 Beekman Street, Xew York city ; and is 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



299 



warranted to operate satisfactorily, wliich it will do, if 
the niachine be used v^ith the skill required. I have 
permed the foregoing suggestions, more for the benefit 
of farmers, than for the pecuniary advantage of the 
manufacturer of the machine. I have alluded to the 
difiiculties which will be met with in operating such a 
seed sower, so that a common laborer might not be dis- 
appointed, when using it. 

SowixG Geaix Broadcast. 

Every farmer should learn to sow all kinds of grain 
and grass seed broadcast. I say he should learn to do 
it. Yery few men are able to sow anything evenly. 
On some kinds of land, a drill cannot be used. 

In sowing, either by furrows or stakes, always throw 
the grmnfrom the margin of the field; because one can 
sow much more evenly up to the margin by throwing 
away from it, than he can to throw toirard it. Let the 
grain slip off tlie ends of the fingers, and not hetween the 
thumb and fingers, nor hetioeeii the fingers. Make cal- 
culations how wide to sow at one through^ or once 
across ; and endeavor to give the grain such a cast that 
it will come down as evenly as possible. 

In sowing by middle furrows and ridges, which, if the 
ploughing has been done correctly, will be just twenty- 
two feet apart, I always sow just eleven feet to a casi. 
I can usually sow more evenly by walking about mid- 
way from each edge of the strip that I am sowing. It 
matters little where a sower walks, if he only distributes 
]iis grain evenly. 

Casting the grain all one vmy is the most approved 
manner of soydng, with many farmers. TThen sowing 



300 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



is performed in this manner, some farmers mark out 
the ground with marks just eleven feet apart ; and the 
sower travels in the marks ; and if he commences sowing 
east and west on the north margin of the field, he starts 




i-'iG. 41. — Sowing Grain Broadcast. 



at the east end, travelling on the margin, and casts the 
grain to the south with his right hand, sowing up to the 
first mark. 

The most convenient receptacle to sow from, is a bag 



THE ^7HEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



301 



of ordinary size, hung over the shoulder, as shown in 
the illustration. Read all about the manipulations of 
sowing grain in first volume of my Young Farmer's 
Manual, which may be had of the author. 



^^'uttixg's Fanning Mill. 




Fig. 42. — Grain Separator. 



Every farmer who raises grain should have a fanning 
mill that will separate the small from the large kernels. 
Rufus Nutting, Randolph, Vermont, is the inventor of 
an excellent fanning mill and seed separator, which 
'is represented by the accompanying illustration. The 
"Annual Register," when extolling the merits of this mill, 
states that, at one of the fau's of the State Society, an 
agent put one of the poorest samples of grain through 
this mill, returning it to the bag with the large kernels 
on the top. When the judges saw the grain, they 
awarded the first prize to the poorest entry of wheat, 



302 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



not knowing that tlie large kernels were all on the sur- 
face. The screens are so constructed that tliej have 
almost the smoothness of glass, and are made by press- 
ing common wire screens,, rendering the meshes im- 
movable and always accurate, increasing their durabil- 
ity, giving them the character of glazed muslin, and 
allowing the seed to slide over them, when slightly in- 
clined from a level. The latter quality gives them their 
preeminent advantage. The seed never falls directly 
upon them, but first upon a smooth surface, flat with 
the screen, in passing over which and to the screen, 
every oblong grain has assumed a horizontal position. 
If longer than the meshes, it goes over them ; if shorter, 
it drops through. Such a mixture, therefore, as spring 
wheat and oats, often so troublesome to the farmer, is 
perfectly separated. Even barley and spring wheat are 
separated, the barley grains being slightly longer, and 
enough hghter to be driven more by the cm-rent of wind. 
Wheat is cleaned from chess in a complete manner. J. 
J. Thomas says, " For cleaning grass seed, we have never 
witnessed anything that would compare with this fan. 
A mixture of clover and timothy was run through once 
together ; in one drawer was found entirely pure timothy 
seed, and in another, clover without a single grain of 
timothy ; the intermediate drawer had a very small quan- 
tity of imperfect seeds of clover, a very little timothy, 
and some other seeds of weeds. 

" The current of wind is so completely at command, 
that all degrees of strength, from the imperceptible breeze 
to the blast that sweeps away heavy grain, maybe readily 
given. This peculiarity, in connection with the screens, 
enables the operator to separate any seeds whatever, that 
differ either in sha2?e^ size, or weight. 



THE WHEAT CrLTOlIST. 



303 



" A most important office performed by this machine 
is the separation of the different-sized seed of the 
same grain. Pass, for instance, ten bnshels of wheat 
throngh the screens ; one portion will be fmmd a nni- 
formly small grain ; another about medinm ; a third, 
large, plump and first rate. The first and third would 
not be supposed to have grown in the same field. In 
this way, excellent seed wheat may be obtained from an 
ordinary crop ; and the best bushel in fifty, or the best 
ten bushels in fifty, may be separated at the option of 
the farmer." 

Haedee's Impeoyed Faxxexg Mill. 

The illustration herewith given represents an im- 
proved fanning mill 
of a superior kind, 
manufactured by 
E. & Harder, 
Cobleskill, Schoha- 
rie County, Kew 
York. This mill 
is adapted to clean- 
ing all kinds of 
grain and grass 
seeds ; and, I be- 
lieve, gives excellent satisfaction. Every faiTuer who 
raises grain should possess an excellent fanning mill, 
and always clean his seed grain thoroughly. 

DeBBLIXG IX Yv^HEAT. 

The process of dibbling-in seed wheat consists in sim- 
ply making a hole in the ground with one finger, or with 
the end of a pointed stick about as large as a man's 




Fig. 43.— Fanning Mill. 



304 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



forefinger. The dibble is put through a hole in a block 
of wood about three inches square, which furnishes a 
shoulder to prevent making a hole more than two, or two 
and a half inches deep. If no shoulder is attached to 
the dibble, where the soil is mellow, there is danger that 
the dibble will be thrust into the ground too far. The 
operator carries his seed in a sack or planting-bag 
secured to his body, as when planting Indian corn. 
The soil is first put in excellent tilth, as the dibbling 
process cannot be conducted satisfactorily, where there are 
lumps of earth and stones. The surface of the ground 
is made smooth and even, by raking and rolling. Then 
a line is stretched across the piece to be dibbled ; and as 
fast as one hand makes a hole with the dibble, the other 
drops one kernel into the bottom of the recess ; and each 
hole is filled with mellow soil. This constitutes the en- 
tire process of dibbling-in grain. 

It has been stated in certain agricultural papers, that 
if seed wheat were dibbled in, the yield would be double 
the amount of grain that could be raised on the same 
ground by any other mode of seeding. But there is no 
reason to believe that one bushel of grain more could be 
produced by dibbling-in the seed than by putting in 
with a good drill. The fact that statements have been 
made by farmers, to show the superiority of dibbling 
over drilling or broadcast seeding, does not make it so. 
We want the evidence of numerous well-conducted ex- 
periments to prove it. If the soil is in an excellent 
state of fertility, the yield of grain will be as large 
when put in with Beckwith's drill (page 306), as if driUed 
in by hand. Indeed, seed is, to all intents and purposes, 
drilled in, by such a drill, as I have just alluded to. 

Dibbling can be practised advantageously and eco- 



THE WHEAT OULTUEIST. 



305 



nomically, only where there is an abundance of cheap 
labor. If a farmer has no drill, and has time to spare, 
it will pay him to put an acre of land into first-rate con- 
dition ; and dibble in the seed. When experimenting 
on a small scale with the production of new varieties, 
the seed may be dibbled in. 

As the stools of wheat will tiller sufficiently to occupy 
the entire ground if the soil be rich, if the kernels be 
planted seven inches apart in the drills and the same 
distance in the rows, the yield of grain will be fully as 
large as if more seed had been planted. 

In Stephens' " Book of the Farm," an English work, 
the author has penned a paragraph on dibbling-in grain. 
But a concluding sentence leads one to infer that he 
knows nothing practically about this system of seeding ; 
as he says, " It is asserted by those who have put in 
wheat by dibbling, that the yield will be five quarters 
and a half (forty-four bushels) per acre ; and that one 
bushel of seed is sufficient for an acre." 

The " Country Gentleman " contains a brief account 
of a Michigan farmer, who attempted to dibble in wheat 
on a large scale, by constructing a roller having ridges 
and creases, similar to Beckwith's drill (page 306). But 
the experiment was doubtless too rude to prove anything, 
either for or against, the system of dibbling. 

The superintendent of the County Poor-house, hav- 
ing a large number of men under his supervision, with- 
out pay, had an acre of land prepared as for a carrot 
bed, and the seed dibbled in by hand. It was a tedious 
process. But the yield was no heavier than if the seed 
had been put in with a drill. 

The idea that by pressing the soil around the seed, or 
by pressing the soil before the seed is put in, will pro- 



306 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



duce a larger yield of grain, than if the seed were put 
into the mellow ground without any such compressing 
of the seed-bed, is all moonshine, and unphilosophical. 



Beckwith's Kollek Dkill. 
The accompanying representation of a di'ill will furnish 




Fig. 44.— Beckwith's Eoller Drill. 

a fair idea of the style of implement made by P. D. Beck- 
with, Dowagiac, Michigan, This drill consists of a series 
of cast-iron rollers or wheel, one of which is shown in 
the engraving, all placed on a wrought-iron shaft, or 
axle, which will roll on the ground, each one independ- 
'ent of the other, and which support the entire frame 
and all the machinery of the drill. These rollers are 
twenty-eight inches in diameter, and have a Y-shaped 
periphery, which, by the aid of the weight of the di'ill, 
form small furrows in the soil to receive the seed. 

The rollers are also made with sufficient hub to keep 
them the proper distance apart, seven and a half inches 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



307 



from centre to centre ; and each, one is loose on the axle 
and has an independent movement from each other, ex- 
cept the centre roller and one at the end, which are both 
made fast on and rovolve with the axle. This end roller 
drives the distributing apparatus ; and by the aid of the 
centre wheel, will make a uniform motion for distribut- 
ing the seed regularly upon the most uneven ground. 
The frame of the drill is made of two cast-iron slide- 
pieces, with rounded corners in front, so as to ward off' 
stumps and other obstructions, when passing them, and 
still be able to drive the machine very close to the same 
so as to sow all the ground that can he ploughed in new 
fields or among corn shocks, as many of our Western 
farmers sow wheat after corn, the same fall, before the 
corn is removed from the field. 

The box or hopper for holding coarse grain is placed 
behind the rollers, and is made in the usual form, and 
has two iron plates or jaws at the bottom, one made fast 
and the other movable. There is a wooden rod placed 
under these plates, with wire pins projecting up between 
and about one-half an inch above the plates into the 
seed. This rod is made to vibrate by suitable lever 
connections, a cam on the end, with roller. The wire 
pins running between the plates of the hopj)er upward 
into the seed will agitate and cause it to run out be- 
tween the opening, which can be regulated to sow the 
desired quantity. The seed from the distributor is con 
ducted down through iron pipes into the furrows made 
by the rollers. There are inverted iron hoes, or cov- 
erers, attached to the frame and drag behind the rollers 
and conducting pipes, to cover the seed. These cov- 
erers can be raised from the ground, when turning 
around, by means of a crank attached to the journal. 



308 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



The grass-seed hopper is placed forward of the rollers 
and deposits the seed broadcast. The distributor is a 
slide of thin flat iron, placed in the bottom of the hop- 
per, with suitable holes in it to correspond with the 
openings in the bottom of the hopper to regulate the 
quantity sowed. The seed is agitated and made to pass 
through these openings by a serrated rod made to vi- 
brate in the bottom of the hopper on the thin iron slide 
by being attached to the levers on the cam of the end 
roller. 

These rollers all being on the one axle, will level the 
ground similar to a field-roller, and leave the surface in 
good condition for the reaper and mower ; and the roll- 
ers being loose on the shaft or axle, may be turned 
around easily by the team. 

Where the soil is light, and mellow, the grass-seed 
distributor may be forward of the grain drill, as it is 
better to cover grass seed with one inch or more of earth 
on very light soils. But as a general rule, especially 
where the soil is heavy, I think that the grass-seed dis- 
tributor should be placed behind the rollers, as there is 
danger of covering grass seed too deep. Grass seed of 
all kinds requires but little covering. My long expe- 
rience assures me that a larger proportion of grass seed 
and clover seed will grow when sowed after the last 
implement has been drawn over the surface than when 
the seed is harrowed, rolled, or brushed in. There is 
great danger of covering grass seed too deep. The first 
shower of rain that falls on the field after the seed has 
been sown, will cover almost every seed as deep as is 
requisite to insure germination and luxuriant vegetation. 

Another improvement in this excellent drill, besides 
placing the grass-seed distributor hehind the rollers, is 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



309 



forming the Y-shaped ridge on the surface of a broad thin 
rim, saj five inches wide. This style of rollers would 
leave the surface of the ground more even, as all the 
clods would be crushed when they are more than one 
inch in diameter. If the periphery of the rollers were 
of this form, the channels made by the Y-shaped ridges 
would all be of a uniform depth ; whereas, when con- 
structed of the present form, were the soil very mellow 
and light, the channels would be made too deep. As 
this roller drill deposits the kernels of grain about one 
and a half or two inches deep, the roots of the growing 
plants spread out nearly in a horizontal direction, more 
in a mass, and thus withstand more effectually the influ- 
ences, of freezing and thawing of the soil, and the con- 
sequent upheaving of the plants in the winter. 

I think that all practical wheat-growers, who under- 
stand the habit of the wheat plant, and who appreciate 
the importance of having the seed put into the soil at 
a uniform depth, will agree that this drill operates on 
principles strictly scientific, and in perfect harmony 
with the habit of the growth of the wheat plant. 
Where there are stones and roots in the soil, to prevent 
the operation of this drill, a tube drill is preferable. 

Pkactical Advaittages of DEiLLmG-m Wheat. 

There is great advantage in having seed wheat cov- 
ered deep and uniformly in dry weather, in order to 
insure more perfect germination. When wheat is sowed 
broadcast and harrowed in, in dry weather, much of the 
seed will never vegetate ; but the kernels will absorb a 
little moisture during the night, which will all be dried 
out during the daytime. By this alternate wetting and 



310 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



drying of tlie grain the germs will be destroyed in a few 
days. If the kernels be buried just deep enough to in- 
sure germination, but not having sufficient depth of 
earth to prevent being dried up by the burning sun, the 
young plants wither and die for want of depth of earth. 

John Johnston, of Geneva, ^s'ew York, wi'ites : " I 
noticed last year, on an adjoining farm, where the 
wheat was drilled in, that it came up much better than 
mine, where the seed was sown broadcast. In fact, the 
wheat came up right. I could not account for the dif- 
ference, at the time, between the appearance of my 
grain and this in my neighbor's field, as my land is in 
as good state of cultivation as his; and the seed was 
put in on both farms at the same time. His field pro- 
duced a good crop of grain, far above the average crop 
of this county for several years past. It did not occur 
to me, till this season, that the great difiference between 
the two crops, was owing to his wheat being drilled in 
while mine was sowed broadcast and harrowed in. Last 
season, we both sowed our winter wheat in the former 
part of September. My ground had been summer fal- 
lowed, and I never saw a field in better condition for 
receiving seed. A diy time ensued at the period of 
sowing the seed. His drilled wheat came up evenly, 
and grew luxuriantly ; while mine was exceeding thin 
on the ground. On examining, I found that none of 
my grain had vegetated, except those kernels that were 
bmied deepest in the soil. It occuiTed to me then that 
if I had drilled in my wheat, ray fields would have pro- 
duced five or six hundred bushels of grain more than 
they did yield. I will drill in my wheat hereafter. Old 
as I am, I still live and learn. I expect my wheat will 
yield this season only about twelve bushels per acre. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJRIST. 



311 



With the exception of the crops raised in 1828 and 1831, 
my wheat was the poorest this past season that I have 
ever raised. The failure was mainly owing to the severe 
drought in autumn, at seed time. Every wheat-grower 
knows that it is impossible to obtain a remunerating 
crop of wheat, when the seed sown in autumn does not 
come up till after the growing season has commenced 
the next spring." 

The Philosophy of DniLLmG-m Grain. 

By reviewing what is recorded under the heading of 
The Habit of the Wheat Plant, page 49, and also page 
126, the reader will understand the eminent import- 
ance of depositing every kernel of wheat at a uniform 
depth. 

This is aimed at when wheat is put in with an ordi- 
nary drill; and, for the most part, the end sought is 
secured, if the soil be of a uniform quality and condi- 
tion, so that the teeth will run at a given depth. But 
when the soil is mellow in some places, and hard in 
others, some drills will deposit the seed in the mellow 
places too deep, so that putting in with a drill will have 
no advantage over sowing broadcast, so far as obviating 
the injurious effects of freezing and thawing are con- 
cerned. The teeth of grain drills should be set to run 
not more than two inches in depth. One and a half 
inches deep for winter grain is better than two, for rea- 
sons already assigned, except where the soil is light and 
dry, in which instance the seed should be deposited not 
less than two inches in depth. Then, nearly all the 
roots will be so near each other, that the expansion of 
the soil will neither break the stem nor seriously dam- 



312 



THE WHEAT CTJLTITKIST. 




per- 
tlie 



Fig. 45.— "mteat Drilled In. 



age the roots ; nor will it cause perceptible diminution 
of tlie crop. 

The accompanying illustration will farnish a practi- 
cal illustration of the mode and advantages of putting in 

wheat with a drill. 
It will be 
ceived that 
ears of grain are 
of a uniform size, 
and all the straws 
are of a uniform 
height. The fig- 
ure shows some of 
advantages of drill- 
ing-in the seed, 
just as those points 
are seen in a field 

of growing wheat. The drilled gi'ain, figure 45, being 
deposited at a sufiicient and uniform depth to receive 
the moisture and the nourishment of the soil, comes up 
more uniformly at one time, is better fed and nourished, 
stands a drought much better, grows more vigorously, 
ripens earlier and more uniformly, is not so liable to 
rust, and the heads are larger and better filled. 

When seed grain is drilled in, one man will complete 
the operation, by simply going over the ground once. 
If sowed broadcast, the ground must be harrowed twice 
after the seed is sowed. This, in addition to the time 
consumed in sowing the seed by hand, wiH requii-e about 
three times longer than is necessary to drill it in. More- 
over, the drill, if properly made and adjusted, will de- 
posit every kernel at a uniform depth ; whereas, the 
harrow covers some of the seed too deep, some not deep 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



313 



enough, and some not at all ; and if the soil be deep and 
mellow, the feet of teams will press a considerable por- 
tion of it quite too deep. 

Another advantage in drilling-in the seed is, as soon 
as an acre or two is ploughed, the grain may be put in 
immediately, thus finishing the work as fast as the 
ground is ploughed. When grain is sowed broadcast, it 
is much more convenient, and rather important, to have 
the entire field ploughed before sowing, so as to be able 
to harrow both ways. When a farmer has a drill, he 
can plough an acre, then harrow it, and drill in the seed 
all in one day, while the soil is fresh, which is the best 
condition to hasten the germination of the grain. He 
thus finishes his work as he progresses, and is always 
ready for temporary interruptions b}^ storms of rain, 
which are often attended with more or less injury to the 
crop. Such delays, especially with spring grain, are 
often fatal to a good crop. 

The Disadvantages of Sowing Wheat Bkoadcast. 

The illustration given on the next page is a fair repre- 
sentation of growing wheat where the seed was scattered 
broadcast and harrowed in. When wheat is sowed 
broadcast and harrowed, a portion of the seed is left un- 
covered, exposed to the drying winds and scorching sun, 
to the fowls and birds ; and that which is covered, is 
at very unequal depths, some very deep, some medium 
depth, and some so near the surface that in case of 
drought, it fails to mature for lack of moisture. Winter 
wheat sowed broadcast is much more liable to be 
raised by the frost, and be thrown out upon the sur- 
face, there exposed to perish, for the reasons already as- 

14 



314 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



signed, namely, that a portion of the seed is barely 
covered with earth ; while much of it will be buried fonr 
to six inches deep, by the feet of teams, where the soil 

is mellow. If the 
kernels are not all 
buried at a uniform 
depth, the stalks 
will not grow of an 
equal height and 
size. If a farmer 
will examine grow- 
ing wheat, after the 
heads are formed, he 
will see some large 
and well-developed 
light, half-matured 
a difference in the 
if the kernels 




Fig. 46. — Grain Sowed Broadcast. 



heads, and some short stems and 
ears. Of course, there will be 
periods of perfect maturity ; whereas, 
ai'e all alike as to size, and all covered at a given depth, 
the germs will start alike ; the stems will grov/ uniform- 
ly ; and the grain will ripen all at one time, so that no 
loss will be sustained in consequence of the late matur- 
ity of a portion of the ears. 

Brown's Celebkated Grain Drill. 

The illustration herewith given represents a trans- 
verse section of the distributing apparatus of a grain 
drill invented by H. L. & C. P. Brown, Shortsville, 
ISTew York, which is one of the best tube drills that I 
have ever met with, as its action is very reliable and 
uniform. This drill will distribute all kinds of grain 
with admirable precision. In the box, the stirrer is rep- 
resented, which consists of an iron rod with wooden 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



315 




Fig. 47.— Grain Distributor. 



pins driven through it, so that the ends of the pins stir 
the grain near the issue 
of each distributor, to 
prevent clogging. Ker- 
nels of grain are repre- 
sented as passingthrough 
the run, or passage from 
the hopper to the issue 
where the grain drops 
into the tubes, and is con- 
ducted to the bottom of 
the furrow opened by 
each drill, before any of 
the soil falls back over the 
seed. The teeth on the 
periphery of the wheel 

which revolves within the case, sweep out a uniform 
quantity of grain at 
every revolution. 
When the team starts 
the drill, the drill be- 
gins to scatter the seed. 

Figure 48 represents 
the opposite side of 
the same distributor, 
for distributing peas 
and beans. Either 
side, or run, can be 
shut off at pleasure. 
Or every other distri- 
butor can be adjusted 

to scatter seed, if it is 4S.-For Drllling-in Peas. 

desirable. The quantity of seed per acre is regulated 




316 



THE WHEAT CIJLTTJEIST. 



by gear wheel of different sizes. Large numbers of this 
style of drills have been mannfactured by the firm al- 
luded to; and the same drill is made by the follow- 
ing manufacturers: Brown, Adams & Co., Shortsville, 
I^". Y. ; Whiteside, Barnett & Co., Brockport, N. Y. ; 
Titus & Bostwick, Ithaca, IsT. Y. ; and Wiard & "Waldo, 
Oakfield, Y. I give the names of these firms for 
the benefit of farmers who want good drills. 

The Buckeye Gkain Drill. 

For the convenience of farmers in different sections 
of the country, I have concluded to mention the Buck- 
eye Grain Drill,which 
is represented by the 
accompanying illus- 
tration, Fig. 49. This 
is a tube drill closely 
resembling the Brown 
drill described on pre- 
vious pages. I can 
recommend it with 
all confidence, as 
large numbers of them have been sold to grain-produc- 
ing farmers ; and I have never heard an adverse report, 
that this drill did not sustain its high reputation. This 
drill is manufactured extensively by manufacturers in 
Springfield, Ohio, and by R. W. Cowan, Fleming, Ca- 
yuga County, ISTew York. 

Ckoss-drillln'g Seed Wheat. 

Some farmers have been accustomed to drill in their 
seed wheat as oats and barley are sometimes put in — 




THE WHEAT CIJLTUKIST. 



317 



by drilling-in half the desired amount per acre, bj driv- 
ing the drill in one direction, and the remainder by run- 
ning the drill at a right angle to the first direction. 
Some of our wheat-growers repose so much confidence 
in this manner of drilling-in seed wheat, that they be- 
lieve it increases the amount of the crop from twenty 
to twenty-five per cent. But, if any one will take the 
trouble to decide this controverted point by a few well- 
conducted experiments, he will satisfy himself that there 
is really nothing gained, but a loss sustained, by putting 
in winter wheat in that manner. 

The chief objection to cross-drilling of winter wheat 
is, that the feet of the teams — especially when the soil 
is mellow and deep — will force much of the seed two 
or three inches deeper than it was deposited by the 
drill. Planting a portion of the grain two or more 
inches deeper than the seed should be covered, and 
deeper than the larger proportion of the grain is cov- 
ered, will be found to be decidedly objectionable for 
winter grain of any kind. Indeed, such an uneven 
manner of covering the seed will be found more objec- 
tionable for any kind of winter grain, than for spring 
grain. Another objection to cross-drilling winter wheat 
is, much of the seed that was drilled in the first time 
will be displaced by the drill-tubes and left partly un- 
covered. And some farmers contend that the second 
drilling destroys the little ridges made by the tubes. 
But this theory amounts to nothing in a practical point 
of view. Its abettors contend that the ridges made by 
the drill-tubes are washed down to a level by the snows 
and rains of winter, thus tending to the accumulation 
of more soil over the roots of the wheat plants that have 
been lifted out by the frost. 



318 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



Fatal Experiment with Seed Wheat. 

Farmers should remember that the germs of wheat 
are organs of exceedingly delicate structure. They are 
really things of life — little things, and of course, they 
have but a small amount of vitality. For this reason, 
it is exceedingly hazardous to tamper with the grain. 
Let it be always kept distinctly in mind, that it does 
not take much to destroy the germs of the grain. Young 
farmers — and sometimes old ones who ought to know 
better — have a great desire to try an experiment with 
their seed grain. J. L. Rice, a farmer of Jefferson Coun- 
ty, New York, communicated the following suggestions, 
which will save many a young farmer from falling into 
a similar experiment. He writes thus to the " Cultiva- 
tor and Country Gentleman " : 

"It is quite common nowadays to try experiments. 
Some give ' quite satisfactory ' results ; with others there 
is notliing perceptible, either good or bad ; while a third 
class often prove very disastrous. The one I am about 
to give, is of the latter class, and I give it, not because 
I like to say much about having done a very foolish 
thing, neither would I recommend it to others — but as 
a warning to those inclined to try experiments ; and, 
wdiere there is an even chance for a failure, to do it cau- 
tiously and on a small scale. 

" In the fall of 1857, 1 had a piece of ground of about 
four acres, upon which I thought I would risk a crop 
of wheat. The land was in fine order, it having been 
well manured previous to the crop of barley, just taken 
from it — and to make it still better, it had another good 
dressing after it was ploughed for the wheat. I could 
see no reason, if the winter was favorable, why I should 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



319 



not have a good crop. But about this time I was seized 
with an intolerable itching to try an experiment. I 
wanted to do something that would destroy the weevil — 
keep the wire-worms at a proper distance — prevent 
smitt, and at the same time make the wheat grow^ like 
Jonah's gom^d. E"ow, what would accomplish all this ? 
Be patient, gentlemen, and I will tell you what I did, 
and what was the result. 

" My cow stable is so constructed, that the urine runs 
back into a gutter by itself, and can be very easily taken 
up, free from manure. I concluded to give my seed a 
good wetting with this urine, and dry it off with lime, 
and then sow it. I did so. It lay about six hours wet, 
before the lime was applied, and then it was immediate- 
ly sowed and nicely dragged in. After waiting a suit- 
able time for it to come up, I went to see how it looked, 
with the bump of expectation considerably enlarged. 
But I was a little too soon — it had not made its appear- 
ance — it would come in a few days ; of course it would. 
Who ever knew a Held of wheat sown, and not come 
up ? Another week, and I went to take a look — ^but no 
wheat ! The result was, it never did corns up. I do 
not believe, that if all that ever made its appearance 
above ground, had been left to mature, there would have 
been as much as a man would take upon a wheelbar- 
row. It was a toted failure. This was wholly owing 
to the experiment^ for the seed was first rate. I sold 
some to a neighbor, and it grew finely. IN^ow, the ap- 
plication made, like a great many things recommended, 
was not adapted to the end desired. True, it destroyed 
the weevil — kept the wire- worms at bay, perhaps. As 
to the smut, cannot say what the result would have 
been ; but it killed the germ of the wheat. 



320 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



"^Bought wit' is better than none - and I am not 
sure bnt that it is the hest ^ for one is apt to remeinher 
what he gets in this way. But it should not cost too 
much. Mine, in this instance, cost me about twenty- 
five dollars, as seed at that time was worth two dollars 
a bushel ; besides not a little vexation and disappoint- 
ment. I would just say, that I have been rather shy 
of that puddle behind my cows, ever since its use as 
above mentioned. Although a very excellent fertilizer, 
and should by all means be saved, it is better to mix it 
with straw, and other absorbents, and apply it to the 
land, and not, in its fioll strength and raw state, to seed 
wheat or any other kind of seed. So I think." 



Brinixg Seed Wheat. 

"Some steep their seed, and fsome in caldrons boil, 
With rigorous nitre and ^vith lees of oil, 
O'er gentle fires, th' exub'rant juice to drain. 
And swell the flattering husks with fruitful grain." 

Detden's Viegil. 



Some wheat-growers contend that brining the seed is 
of no practical utility. But the large majority of good 
farmers concur in the belief, that washing the seed in 
brine as strong as it can be made, will prevent smut. 
It will also enable the farmer to skim out light wheat, 
chess, and almost anything else that may be in the seed, 
the strong brine brino^ino^ it to the surface much better 
than mere water. The wheat should, while in the brine, 
be stirred as long as any foul seed or light wheat rises ; 
one bushel at once in a barrel is sufficient, with plenty 
of brine ; then dip brine and wheat into a basket. 
When drained a few minutes, empty on a clean floor ; 
take the same brine for another batch, and so on, until 



THE WHEAT CrLTOJIST. 



321 



YOii have as miTcli as toh wish to sow that day. Then 
sift on good slacked lime gradually, while another per- 
son follows aronnd the heap or stirs it with a shovel, or 
with a rake. Pnt on lime until the wheat will not 
stick together. Then let it be sown and immediately 
coTered. The lime ^^nll then continue to stick to the 
wheat, and furnish fertilizing material to promote the 
growth of the young wheat plants. 

A wheat-grower in Western Xew York has com- 
municated his manner of preparing seed wheat as fol- 
lows : " Before sowing, prepare a strong brine. Half a 
barrel will be needed to pickle as little as four or five 
bushels of grain, but, of course, would answer for much 
more, and to this quantity add half a pound of blue 
vitriol (sidj)hate of copper^. A portion is done at a 
time, stu'ring it well, and skimming oft' all that floats, 
dirt, foul stuft', smutty grains, etc. As fast as each por- 
tion is soaked, throw it out into a basket to di'ain. The 
pickling should be done four to twelve hours before 
sowing. Just previous to sowing, the grain should be 
spread out upon a clean floor and rolled in lime slacked 
to a diy powder, stirring the heap with rakes.'' 

The Stab Deill. 

The implement represented by the illustration shown 
on the next page, is the combined Star Drill " and Cul- 
tivator, a part of which is represented on page 296 of 
this book. Here the land-roller and the seed-sowing 
attachment are shown, in connection ^dth the small 
ploughs, 

TThen this implement is employed for putting in 
grain, the seed is taken from the seed-box by means of 

14* 



322 THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 

a revolving distributor and dropped immediately behind 
tlie plough in the furrow, and covered by the next 
plough ; and so on after each plough, leaving the grain 
in the last furrow uncovered until the next round. The 




Fig. 50.— The Star Drill. 



revolving distributor has openings at a given distance 
from each other, to keep up a continuous stream of 
grain. The quantity is increased or diminished by the 
depth of the opening. Resting upon this seed-roller is 
an elastic substance arranged to distribute the grain 
in the desired quantity. This is a comparatively new 
farm implement. But I think, if it is properly made, 
the machine will operate satisfactorily. Further infor- 
mation may be obtained of the manufacturers, Ewell 
i% Co., Baltimore, Marvland. 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



323 



Cast Cast-steel Ploughs. 

The figure herewith given represents a plough that 
has become exceedingly popular, and is gaining favor 
every year. The entire mouldboard, land-side, and 
share, are made of cast cast-steel. The metal is run in 
a mould somewhat as ploughs of cast-iron are made. 




Fig. 51— Steel Ploughs. 

This style of ploughs is a perfect paragon of neatness 
and practical utility. Everybody likes them, when they 
are made right, with a hard temper. They are manu- 
factm-ed by Collins & Co., 212 Water street, l^ew York 
city, and J. B. Skinner, Rockford, Illinois. 'No other 
plough will excel this implement for working in the 
liglit prairie soils of the West. When tempered hard, 
they never clog ; but when the steel is soft as iron, so 
that it can be cut with the point of a jack-knife, fine 
soil will adhere to the surface and give as much trouble 
as is frequently experienced with cast-iron ploughs. 



324 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUEIST. 



This plough has been before the public sufficiently long 
to establish the point that steel ploughs, when the parts 
are hardened properly, are far superior to iron ploughs, 
as they will draw much easier and last longer. 



NiSHwnz's Disk Hakrow. 




The accompanying illustration represents a new style 
of pulverizer, invented by F. Nishwitz, 142 First street, 
Williamsburg, Long Island, 'New York. The principle 
of construction is quite new ; but, by those who have 
used it, the operation is said to be eminently effective. 
The wooden frame consists of two pieces of hard, tough 
timber, about two inches in thickness, by seven or eight 
inches wide, held in position by the cross-bar, which is 
firmly bolted to the side pieces, as represented by the 
illustration. 

The pulverizers consist of several sharp-edged circu- 
lar disks, about one foot in diameter, being concave on 
one side and convex on the other. When the wheels or 
disks are cast, a round steel pin, about three-fourths of 
an inch in diameter, is inserted in the mould, thus fur- 
nishing a steel journal for each disk. A bolt with a nut 
at the upper end is passed through a socket-standard, 
which holds the disks in their position. 



THE WHEAT CULTIJEIST. 



325 



CHAPTER IV. 

Wheat Harvest. 

" How the harvest spreads the field I 
Waving- grain to reapers yield ! 
Scythes and sickles flash around, 
Eakes and pitchforks clear the ground." 

Edvtaeds. 

The season of wheat harvest, when I was in my boy- 
hood, used to be a joyous and propitious period for poor 
people. Several days before wheat was fit to harvest, 
the streets would often be lined with cradlers and rakei^ 
and binders, going from those sections of the conntry 
where they thought the soil was too poor to produce 
wheat, to the wheat-growing districts, in quest of labor. 
For ordinary farm labor, men were accustomed to re- 
ceive fifty cents in money ; or one bushel of Indian corn ; 
or half a bushel of wheat, for the labor of one day. For 
a day's work in the harvest field, a cradler was accus- 
tomed to receive one dollar, or a bushel of wheat ; or 
two bushels of Indian corn. The men who raked and 
bound after a cradler, alone, received one dollar each, 
as raking and binding the wheat that a cradler cut down, 
was considered equal to the labor of cradling the same 
amount of grain. When two men followed a cradler, 
they received fifty cents each, per day. A boy who could 
rake gavels, received twenty-five cents for his day's work, 
or half a bushel of Indian corn ; and the man, or boy, 



326 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



who could bind the gavels, after they were raked, was 
paid seventy-five cents per day. Cradlers and rakers 
and binders were required to do their work in a neat 
and farmer-like manner, or they must find employment 
somewhere else. 

This incentive prompted men to learn how to work 
with skill and efficiency. Such cradlers and rakers and 
binders as most farmers are now obliged to rely on, are 
most inefficient and miserable help. Whether they 
swing the cradle, or rake and bind, or shock the bound 
grain, their work is performed in a most perfunctory, Slov- 
enish, and unsatisfactory manner. Nothing will have a 
tendency to make an ambitious and neat farmer so ut- 
terly sick of his employment, as to see most of the farm 
laborers of the present day swing the cradle in grain 
of any kind, or rake and bind the gavels, and put the 
sheaves in stooks. When I was a young man, very few 
of the farm laborers of the present day would have re- 
ceived more than a boy's wages, until they had learned 
to work in the harvest field with efficiency and in a neat 
and skilful manner. When a man or boy failed to 
cradle grain neatly, or rake it clean, or to bind his 
sheaves tight, and in the middle of the gavel, it was a 
very common occurrence to hear the proprietor tell him, 
" You do not work to suit me. You can find work 
somewhere else." But, at the present day, good cradlers 
and neat and skilful rakers and binders are the excep- 
tion — ^not the rule, as it should be. To aid practical 
farmers in performing their work in the easiest and most 
economical manner, is my object, in penning the follow- 
ing pages. Let farmers first learn how to liandle tools 
with skill and efficiency, and then they will be prepared 
to teach their awkward laborers. 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUKIST. 



327 



Reapees and Moweks. 

Every farmer who raises wlieat, or any other kind of 
cereal grain, needs a good reaper. And while he is 
procuring one, he may as well purchase a combined 
machine as to own a reaping machine and a mowing 
machine in two separate machines. Besides this, it is 
desirable to get a machine that can be relied on from 
year to year ; a macliine that has been brought to the 
most satisfactory degree of perfectibility. Mechanics 
will be trying to bring out machines on new principles. 
The consequence is that a great many imperfect ma- 
chines must be taken on the farms and experimented 
with, until all the imperfect points in the machinery 
have been found and corrected. For this reason, I con- 
sider it important to suggest to farmers to purchase such 
machines as can be used to mow grass, clover seed, flax, 
and to harvest all kinds of grain ; and to choose such 
machines as have had all their weak points corrected. 
It takes a vast amount of brain labor and money to 
make a really good and complete mower and reaper. 
Either of tire firms whose reapers are figured and de- 
scribed in this book have expended a large fortune in 
bringing their reapers and mowers to their present state 
of perfectibility. 



The Kikbt Mower and Reapek. 

This reaper is a combined machine, driven by only 
one wheel. Some farmers are very partial to a one- 
wheeled reaper and mower, while others can be satisfied 
with nothing short of a two-wheeled machine. Who- 
ever has a fancy for a one-wheeled machine, will find 



328 



THE WHEAT CTJLTIXRIST. 



all that he can desire in the Kirbj. 'No expense has 
been spared to perfect every part of it. D. M. Osborn 
& Co., Auburn, ]N". Y., told me that their firm ex- 
pended $20,000 in one experiment to bring out the 
best labor-saving machine in the county. I merely pen 
these facts — not to puff this reaper — but to suggest to 
beginners the importance of getting such machines as 
can be relied on when grass and grain are fit to har- 
vest. 

There used to be, and there is now a serious defect in 
most one-wheel mowers and reapers, which is this : if 
the drive-wheel is in a furrow, the weight comes so 
heavily on the finger-bar, and so lightly on the drive- 
wheel, that the cutters cease to work. But this diffi- 
culty has been obviated in the Kirby, as will appear 
from the following brief description of the essential 
parts of this reaper and mower. 

The illustration on the next page represents the Kirby 
combined mower and reaper, with reel-self-rake attach- 
ment, set up for reaping. 

The drive-wheel is bolted on the axle in the usual 
manner; but the plate on which the axle is cast, is 
made to move vertically, in a groove of the frame, so 
that the drive-wheel has a motion entirely independent 
of the frame and the finger-bar, and will run into dead 
furrows, or other depressions, and allow the cutting part 
to work on the level ground, the motion and power of 
the cutters not being affected in the least. In running 
over stony and stumpy meadows also, this method of 
connection with the drive-wheel gives great facility in 
raising the frame, and with it the cutting parts, above 
SLTiy obstructions. This is effected easily through the 
adjustment made between the weight of the driver and 



330 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



the weight of the working parts ; the one so balancing 
the other, tliat the working of a lever is not necessary 
to raise the inner end of the bar, as is the case with 
nearly all other machines. The finger-bar is of a great- 
ly improved pattern, giving a cut close to the ground 
in mowing. The cntter-bars, or knives, are made light 
and strong, of the best cutting steel, and tempered with 
great care, so as to give an elastic cutting edge suitable 
as well for stony and sandy ground as for the tough, 
fine, close bottoms of old meadows. The machine is 
made of iron and steel throughout, except the pole, seat, 
and track-clearer. The cutting apparatus is the same 
as that used for mowing, with the finger-bar raised to 
the required height for reaping. The platform is so 
shaped as to deliver the grain easily at the side of the 
machine. When used as a hand-raker, the person rak- 
ing ofi", sits a little in the rear of the frame, having per- 
fect command of the grain as it falls on the platform ; 
and can bring it off with one easy quarter sweep of his 
rake. The reel self rake has recently been attached to 
the reaper ; and it is operated by simple gearing from 
the level wheel-shaft. A small pinion engages the gear 
of a circular plate having four radial arms. These arms 
are pivoted at their connection with the circular plate, 
and are moved vertically by means of cams and ways ; 
and receive from them all the necessary motions for 
sweeping the grain on the platform as it is cut, and rak- 
ing it off in a gavel, when required. Beaters are at- 
tached to three of the arms for gathering the grain upon 
the platform ; and to the other arm a rake is bolted, to 
take the grain off. Rakes may also be attached to the 
other arms in place of beaters, so as to deliver the grain 
in a nearly continuous swath. This is a very strong 



THE WHEAT CTJLTUillST. 



331 



and compact rake, the working parts being all of iron, 
and put together in a very substantial manner. 

Keeping Knives Shaep. 

As the cutters of mowers and reapers sever the stems 
of grain and grass with a crushing stroke, it is of the 
utmost importance that the cutting edge should be 
sharp. Besides this, the angles which the cutting sides 
make with the base must be accurately adjusted to the 
rapidity of their vibrations, and their temper must be 
such as to insure the best cutting edge. Experience 
has shown that, where the whole section is tempered, 
it is too frangible for practical use. The slightest con- 
tact with stones, sticks, or other obstructions, causes it 
to fly in pieces like glass. The central portion of the 
section should therefore be left soft, while the temper- 
ing is confined to a portion extending from one-half to 
five-eighths of an inch from the edge. The violent 
change in the structure of the metal, lying on either 
side of the line of demarcation (see Fig. 53), often causes 
a fracture, resulting in loss to the manufacturer or the 
farmer, according to the time when the fracture appeared. 

The illustration on the next page represents a knife, 
or section, manufactm-ed by Reynolds, Barber & Co., 
Auburn, I^ew York. The committee appointed by the 
'New York State Agricultural Society to examine these 
sections, state that " all of the Messrs. Reynolds' sec- 
tions conformed to their test through ten successive 
grindings. Several of the others broke when pressed 
upward at an angle of fifteen degrees. Some of them 
bent permanently, when pressed upon, l^one of them 
except Messrs. Reynolds' showed a good temper after 



332 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



the third grinding. Where a graver was pressed into 
the section at the centre, and carried toward the edge 
with a uniform pressure, the groove formed grew grad- 




REYNOLDS. BARBER &LCo.SdeManufactnr^rs kUBURH N.Y. 
Fig. 53. 



nally shallower, until it touched tlie line of demarca- 
tion — in the Messrs. Reynolds' sections — showing that 
the hardening was progressive from the centre to the 
line of demarkation. In the sections made bv other 
firms the groove formed by the graver was of uniform 
depth until it touched the line of demarcation, when it 
became at one very shallow. This test shows that the 
sections of the Messrs. Reynolds grew gradually harder 
from the centre to the line of demarcation, and that the 
quality of the metal on either side of the line is not so 
dissimilar as to cause fractures ; and accounted very fully 
for their absence in the sections. 

"Having thus ascertained the superiority of these 
sections, we were desirous of seeing the processes of their 



THE WHEAT CTJLTITKIST. 



333 



manufacture, and on making knoAvn our wishes, the 
Messrs. Reynolds were Mnd enough to show us the 
whole of their works ; and we confess to a feeling of 
great surprise on seeing their sections so perfectly tem- 
pered without the agency of any liquid, by percussion, 
reaction, and cold air alone. We saw over a thousand 
tempered and ground, not one of which was cracked, 
or which exhibited any traces of fissure whatever. "We 
believe this process will greatly enhance the efficiency 
of our reaping and mowing machines ; and we rejoice 
that American ingenuity has perfected so valuable an 
invention. They are hard and elastic, will break be- 
fore they will bend, and will carry a sharp cutting edge 
more than double the length of time of any other sec- 
tion we ever tried. And they all have one uniform 
temper, which we consider a very essential point to the 
well-working of any reaper and mower." 

IIe:maeks. — The practical point of first importance to 
a wheat-grower, when purchasing a machine, is, to ascer- 
tain whether the sections, or knives, have a temper equal 
to those manufactured by this firm. 

Best Time to Harvest Wheat. 

" Shot up from broad, rank blades that droop below, 
The nodding wheat-ear forms a graceful bow, 
"With milky kernels starting full, weighed down, 
Ere yet the sun hath tinged its head with brown." 

Bloomfteld's Farmer's Boy. 

It is assumed that every farmer will agree, that there 
is " a best period " in the growth of the wheat plant for 
harvesting. In other words, there is a time when, if 
the straw be cut, the yield of grain will be larger, and 



334 



THE WHEAT CrLTTJEIST. 



the quality of flour will be better, than if the same 
grain were harvested pre^dous to, or after that time. 
That is the decisive point for harvesting wheat. Let ns 
consider some of the stages of development through 
which the wheat passes, as the growing grain approx- 
imates the period of perfect matmity. The first state 
is "the milk period." The heads of grain and the 
kernels are now as large and heavy as they ever will 
be ; and the kernels will measure more at this period 
than at any other. Sometimes the extensive fields of 
wheat look like a sea of waving gold. But the grain is 
not fit to harvest. And if the straw be cut down, more 
or less loss must be sustained, as the material that forms 
the kernels contains a large proportion of the water 
which must be worked out by the vital action of the 
growing plants ; and its place must be supplied by sub- 
stances exquisitely fine, which have been collected, atom 
by atom, infinitesimally small, and brought to the ears 
and deposited in the kernels in the place occupied by 
particles of water. If, at this period, the cradle be thrust 
in, and the golden grain be cut down, the water remain- 
ing in the kernels will quickly escape, before its place 
can be supplied by this fine material that forms the 
flour. The consequence is, the kernels shrink, and the 
yield of grain will not reach its maximum quantity. 
At tliis period, most of the leaves may, sometimes, be 
entirely lifeless, and the circulation of the vital fluid in 
the straw may have ceased. Yet, the process of chang- 
ing from thin to thick milk, and from a semi-fluid to a 
plastic state, continues until the material in the kernels 
is of the consistence of dough when it is put into the 
baker's oven. This period is denominated the " dough 
state." The next is the period of perfect matm'ity. 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



335 



Tins is " the nick of time " to thrust in the sickle and 
reap the harvest. At this point in the growth of the 
plant, deterioration commences ; and the longer the 
grain is allowed to remain uncut, the smaller will be 
the yield, whether the grain be measured or weighed, 
the larger will be the product of bran, and the smaller 
the percentage of fine flour. After wheat has passed the 
milk state, the change to hard grain is usually very rapid. 
For this reason, grain is frequently allowed to stand 
several days too long ; or until the kernels and straw are 
" dead ripe." When wheat is allowed to stand uncut 
through all these periods, a great loss is frequently sus- 
tained by the shelling of the grain while the gavels are 
being bound into sheaves. Still another source of great 
loss is sustained in the straw, when the grain is not cut 
until every part is dead ripe. If wheat be cut at the 
period designated for securing the largest yield of grain, 
the straw, if properly secm^ed from the influences of 
the weather, will afford a large quantity of valuable 
fodder for domestic animals. 

On this subject, Agricola, in the " Working Farmer," 
writes : " There is probably no question in connection 
with wheat harvest which exercises so much influence 
upon the quality of the flour, as well as the amount, 
as the time of cutting. In former years, when we were 
compelled to depend on the sickle, or later on the cradle 
and manual labor, there was some excuse for not takino^ 
advantage of the proper and best time, but in this fast 
and improved age, when one man, aided by a pair of 
horses and a self-raking reaper, can cut and deliver 
ready for binding, from ten to fifteen acres of wheat per 
day, there is no excuse for its not being performed at the 
proper time ; the only thing which can interfere to pre- 



336 



THE TN'HEAT CIXTTETST. 



vent cutting being done on any fixed day is the occur- 
rence of rain, but then, we must remember that our 
grain ripens very little dm'ing wet or clondy weather. 
I hare often found it to ripen more during one clear, 
warm day after a rain, than during a whole week of 
cleanly ov showery weather. 

" At first glance it would seem that it was but natm-al 
that the grain should be allowed to become dead ripe 
before cutting : such would undoubtedly be the case if 
the whole crop were intended for seed, as is the case in 
a natural state of the plant ; but our object is to attain the 
greatest possible percentage of flour with the least pos- 
sible oflal ; and not only this, but also to have this flour 
as rich as possible in gluten. 

All the experiments which have been tried, not only 
here but in England, have clearly proven that there is a 
certain stage c»f the growth of the grain at which it 
yields the greatest proportion of flour, and that at this 
time the fiour contains a larger percentage of gluten 
til an at anytime before or afterward. In order to more 
fully imderstand this time, let us go backfom' weeks ; the 
first two weeks will represent the time passing between 
the grtt/i and 'raw state, and the last two, the time 
wliicli elapses between the raiv and 'rij^e state, and thus 
divide the grain into three stages."' 

]\Ir, Hannuni instituted several experiments to ascer- 
tain, if possible, the proper period to harvest the grain ; 
and his experiments led him to believe that at about a 
fortnight befjre it fully ripens is the proper time for cut- 
ting wheat, as the skin is then thinner, the grain fuller, 
tlie bushel heavier, and the yield of flour greater.** From 
the report of the miller who ground these samples, it 
seems that the lot cut raw made eight pounds more flour 



THE CULTUEIST. 



337 



to every hundred of grain, and corresponding amount of 
straw. Tiie amount of grain was not materially de- 
creased, showing that the addition to the weight of the 
grain was mainly in flour and not in bran. 

In a similar experiment the result showed a gain of 
over fifteen per cent, in flour, from eqaal measm-es of 
grain, and a gam of eight per cent, from equal weights 
of grain. English millers divide the product of the 
wheat into three classes, styled flour, pollard, and bran ; 
the sample cut when fully ripe gains fifty per cent, more 
of pollard than that cut raw. This efl'ect may be thus 
explained : at the time of the first cutting while in the 
raw state, the grain contains its largest aniount of starch 
and gluten ; at this period the grain has a thin skin, and 
consequently less straw ; afterward nature thickens the 
skin in order to protect the grain, thus changing a por- 
tion of the starch into woody fibre. 

In a more extended experiment the difiFerence in pro- 
duce per acre may be thus stated : that cut when raw 
yielded, per acre, nine hundred and ten pounds more 
straw : ninety pounds more flour ; thirty-five pounds less 
pollard and sharps ; thirty-five pounds less bran ; twenty 
pounds less waste, than that cut ripe. The real difier- 
ence in value may be stated at from six to seven dollars 
per acre. 

IN'or is this all which we can gain from early cutting. 
I have heard good farmers admit that they sometimes 
lost enough wheat by shelling out between cutting and 
mowing away in the barn to seed the field, or in other 
words, from one and one and a half to two bushels per 
acre ; this loss is all prevented by early cutting, for grain 
cut in the raw state, no matter how thoroughly dried, 
will seldom if ever shell out if handled in the usual man- 



338 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



iier ; and in addition to this, the sheaf is much pleasanter 
to bind, load, and thrash, for neither the straw nor beard 
is so stiff as when the crop is allowed to stand nntil fully 
ripe. 

In some instances, I have known wheat to be cut on 
the fourth of July, in Central Xew York ; and the next 
season, in the same locality, wheat was not fit to harvest 
till the twentieth of the same month. Therefore, it 
would be useless to endeavor to fix on any week or day 
of a particular month ; for one day will scarcely be uni- 
versal in one country nor with two kinds of wheat. 

In favorable seasons the straw commences to ripen 
from the bottom ; in certain unfavorable seasons the 
upper joints are ripe first ; but the latter case is the ex- 
ception to the rule. When on examination it is found 
that the two lower joints of the straw have turned yel- 
low, and the color is beginning to show itself above the 
second joint ; when the field seen from a distance seems 
quite ripe, but when more closely examined is found still 
green at the top ; when on crushing the grain between 
the fingers or teeth, the milk is found to have become so 
thick as to be fairly called a liquid, then cut j hut not till 
then. My usual rule is to Avait until the yellow color 
begins to show itself almost one inch above the second 
knot or joint from the bottom ; and then cut the crop. 
This rule cannot of course be applied universally to the 
field ; for all the stalks don't ripen equally. But when 
a majority of the stalks comply with the above condi- 
tions, I would cut the field at once ; for though it seems 
green, the process of drying will ripen it without the 
loss which ensues when ripened " in the ground." "When 
the weather is unfavorable, let tools and implements be 
prepared to harvest with dispatch when storms cease. 



THE WHEAT OUETTTRIST. 



339 



CurrmG Wheat in Englaot). 

A few experiments have been made and published in 
this country, showmg, by accm*ate measurement, the 
advantages of cutting when the chaff has partly changed 
from green to yellow. We find the following additional 
proof in Baker's lecture before the Sparkenhoe Club, 
England, as published in the ^NTorth British Agricul- 
turist : 

" In harvesting wheat, there was a great division of 
opinion, as well as to when was the proper time and 
mode of cutting. It was considered a proper time to 
cut wheat when it had passed from a ' milky state ' to 
a ' doughy state.' Experiments had been made under 
three heads — first, when it was green; second, when 
the straw was changing color ; third, when fully ripe. 
The results were in the first case 19|- bushels per acre, 
valued at 61s. per quarter ; in the second, 23^, at 63s. ; 
in the third, 22f , at 61s. There was a similar result in 
the straw. The total value per acre was found to be — 
on that cut green on 8th August, £12 17s. per acre, or 
$62.30 ; second, when cut yellow below the ear one 
week afterward, £13 7s., or $64.61 ; third, cut when 
fally ripe, one week later, £11 12s., or $56.13. This 
difference arose from that cut first and second producing 
more fine flour and less bran than that cut last, which 
proved that the gluten is converted into starch if the 
wheat stands until fully ripe, the proper time being un- 
doubtedly as soon as either end of the straw has changed 
to a yellow color, the sap having then ceased to flow ; 
but, on the other hand, it is better to cut early, as no 
portion is lost by shedding during the process of cutting, 
or by the effect of high winds. It is also less liable to 



34:0 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTIRIST. 



sprout in the sheaf, and early haiTests are also generally 
best. Besides, a few days gained in the commencement 
of harvest is of immeasurable advantage, and enables 
the farmer to take opportunities for effecting other work, 
which otherwise he could not do." 

SiG2fs OF Perfect Mat u kit v. 

The "Prairie Farmer," in an article headed, "When 
shall we cut wheat?" says: "In attempting to answer 
the question. At what jparticular jperiod in the condition 
of the grain shall y:e cut it f we shall not refer to our 
own experience, but only add that our rule is, to cut 
the grain about two weehs hefore it is fully rijpe. 

" Prof. J ohnston, of the Eoyal Agricultural Society 
of England, says, the rawer the crop is cut, the heavier 
and more nourishing the straw will be. Within three 
weeks of being fully ripe, the straw begins to diminish 
in weight ; and the longer it remains uncut, after that 
time, the lighter it becomes, and the less nomishing. 

" On the other hand, the grain, wliich is sweet and 
milky, a month before it is ripe, gradually consolidates 
— the sugar changing into starch, and the milk thicken- 
ing into the gluten and albumen of the flour. As soon 
as this change is nearly completed, or aljout a fortnight 
hefore it is ripe^ the grain of wheat contains the largest 
])ro]}ortion of starch and gluten. If rea])ed at this time^ 
the hushel vnll weigh most^ and will yield the largest 
quantity of fine flour, and the least bran. 

" At this period the grain has a thin skin, and hence 
the small quantity of bran. But if the crop be still left 
uncut, the next natural step in the ripening process is, 
to cover the grain with a better protection — a thicker 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



341 



skin — and a portion of the starch of the grain is changed 
into woody fibre. By this change, the quantity of starch 
is lessened and the weight of hnsk increased. Hence 
the diminished yield of flour, and the increased produce 
of bran. 

" Theory and experience, therefore, indicate about a 
fortnight before it is dead ripe, as the most proper time 
for cutting wheat. The skin is then thinner and whiter, 
the grain fuller, the bushel heavier, the yield of flour 
greater, its color fairer, and the quantity of bran less." 

Color of the Straw. 

When the straw immediately under the head of grain 
turns from a greenish to an orange hue, for four or five 
inches in length, it is time to cut the grain. The ker- 
nels or berries have then just passed out of the milky 
state, but are so soft as to be easily crushed between the 
thumb nails. At this time, some of the leaves on the 
lower portion of the stem may be dead, but still, that 
part of the stem remains vigorous for a few days. 

Mr. Robert Brown, of Edinburgh, a farmer, and for 
many years editor of the Farmer's Magazine," says it is 
necessary to discriminate betwixt the ripeness of the 
straw and the ripeness of the grain ; for, in some sea- 
sons, the straw dries upward; under which circum- 
stances a field, to the eye, may appear completely fit for 
the sickle, when, in reality, the grain is imperfectly con- 
solidated, and perhaps not much renioved from a milky 
state. Though it is obvious that, under such circum- 
stances, no further benefit can be conveyed from the 
root, and that nourishment is withheld the moment the 
roots die; yet it does not follow that grain so cir- 



342 THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 

cumstanced should be immediately cut ; because, after 
that operation is performed, it is in a great measure nec- 
essarily deprived of every benefit from the sun and air, 
both of which have greater influence in bringing it to 
maturity, so long as it remains on foot, than when cut 
down, whether laid on the ground or bound up in sheaves. 
* * * Taking all these things into view, it seems pru- 
dent to have wheat cut hefore it is fully ripe, as less dam- 
age will be sustained from acting in this way than by 
adopting a contrary practice. 

Another authority says that grain, if not reaped until 
the straw is wholly yellow, will be more than ripe, as 
the ear generally ripens before the straw ; and it is ob- 
servable that the first reaped usually afibrds the heaviest 
and fairest samples. 

In the Farmer's Encyclopaedia" it is stated that the 
indications of ripeness in wheat are few and simple. 
When the straw exhibits a bright golden color from the 
bottom of the stem nearly to the ear, or when the ear 
begins to bend gently, the grain may be cut. But as 
the whole crop will not be exactly ripe at the same 
time, if, on walking through the field and selecting the 
greenest heads, the kernels can be separated from the 
chaff when rubbed through the hands, it is a sure sign 
that the grain is then out of its milky state, and may 
be reaped with safety ; for although the straw may be 
green to some distance downward from the ear, yet, if 
it be quite yellow from the bottom upward, the grain 
then wants no further nourishment from the earth, and, 
if properly harvested, will not shrink. The young 
farmer should study this subject most thoroughly, with 
this book in one hand and wheat in the other. He will 
Boon learn when is the best time to harvest wheat, and 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



343 



all kinds of cereal grain. This subject should be studied 
thoroughly. 

Time to Cut Wheat. 

Eawson Harmon, an experienced wheat-grower of 
Western 'New York, writes, in relation to the best period 
to harvest wheat : "To be most valuable for millers, 
wheat should be cut as soon as the berry has passed from 
the milky to the doughy state. Wheat cut then, con- 
tains more gluten and less starch, than if it were not 
harvested until the grain is fully ripe. If wheat is 
allowed to stand uncut, until the kernels become hard, 
the gluten is diminished, and the starch is increased, 
which reduces the quantity and quality of the flour. 
But for seed, it should never be cut till fully ripe. 
Starch is more valuable in its early vegetation than the 
gluten. One cause of the increase of smut, of late 
years, is the cutting of wheat intended for seed, too 
green. Wheat cut before it is fully ripe, should not be 
sown. If wheat-growers would adhere strictly to the 
sowing of no seed that is cut before it is fully ripe, they 
would find smut disappearing without the preparation 
of brine and lime. The farmer that neglects to brine 
and lime his seed wheat, does not look to his best in- 
terest. Smutty wheat is much improved by not cutting 
until fully ripe." 

CuTTma Wheat too Green. 

Although there is but little danger of harvesting 
wheat before the grain is really fit to cut, still wheat 
may be cut before it is really fit to harvest ; and in- 
stances have been recorded, where the loss sustained 
from cutting a crop too green, amounted to many hun- 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



dred dollars. J. P. Lowe penned the following facts : 
''A Southern farmer once grew three hundred acres of 
wheat, which, in June, had attained a huge growth, 
and appeared remarkably promising. The agricultural 
papers were then recommending to harvest early, while 
the grain was in the milky state. He followed their 
advice, and cut the whole three hundred acres as soon 
as the juice of the kernel began to whiten. The grain 
shrank badly. He estimated his loss, from too early 
harvesting, at $5,000. The blunder, as estimated by 
the writer, and by the gentleman himself, who, by the 
way, appeared very candid, and was willing to take his 
full share of the blame, fairly belonged, about one-half 
to him, and the other half to the agricultural journals 
of the time. The papers had blown too strongly, and 
altogether too indiscriminately, on the benefits of early 
harvesting, and he had followed their advice to excess 
— ^had cut his wheat in a greener state than they had 
recommended — had misunderstood them, to an extent 
which he freely confessed was inexcusable." 



Management of Wheat. 

Beginners frequently inquire whether it is not better 
to cut down the growing wheat at harvest time, and 
allow it to remain in the swath for a day or two, before 
it is bound into sheaves. But experience proves that it 
is far better for the grain, especially if the straw, when 
cradled, is somewhat green, to be bound in bundles, and 
put in stocks, than to let it lie in the swath, especially 
in hot and dry weather. If the grain be exposed in the 
swath to the burning sun, for only a few hours, the 
intense heat scorches the soft kernels, and dries up the 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



345 



moisture in the grain so rapidly, that its quality is 
seriously injured, for making the best quality of flour. 
Besides this, the grain shrinks far more than it would, 
were the heads permitted to cure in the shade. If the 
straw be bound in bundles, and the sheaves be set in 
neat stooks and covered with caps of some kind, which 
shade the grain, the soft kernels will cure gradually, be 
more plump, and make more and better grain, or flour. 

Mr. E. A. King, a practical farmer of King's Ferry, 
Cayuga County, l!^. Y., penned the following instructive 
suggestions for the " Cultivator and Country Gentle- 
man " : "I believe it is a conceded fact that wheat, be- 
fore it is perfectly ripe, gives more and a better quality 
of flour. Still the yield is owing greatly to the manner 
in which the grain is cured, after being cut. Every 
intelligent wheat -grower knows that grain of any kind, 
cut in a greenish state, and allowed to remain in swath 
to cure, will cause the kernels to shrink and be of an 
inferior quality ; while if bound almost immediately, 
or before it gets dry, and put up in round shocks and 
capped, the grain will receive the juices remaining in 
the green straw, and become round and plump. To 
prove the benefit derived from keeping the heads of 
grain from being exposed to the air, let any one who 
has practised round shocking examine the heads of the 
top cap sheaf, and he will find the berries much less 
plump and heavy than those taken from underneath. 
Where wheat is struck with rust, early cutting, imme- 
diate binding, and round shocking will often save the 
crop, when if put up in long shocks, as many farmers 
do, the damage would be great. This is especially the 
case with spring wheat, as this variety is with us more 
apt to rust than the winter variety, as the time of ripen - 

15* 



346 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



ing usually occurs later, when tliere is a greater amount 
of warmth and moisture, which is no doubt the cause 
of the grain rusting. To prove this, wheat, oats, or 
barley, sown on our hilly lake land, where the drainage 
is quick and immediate, are seldom struck with rust of 
any kind." 

If wheat-growers will observe this suggestion, they will 
perceive that when grain is harvested and cured in cloudy 
weather, the yield will always be larger than if the weather 
were burning hot while the grain is curing. If wheat 
could be cut when the straw is quite green and cured 
under shelter, without being put into a mass so large 
as to heat, we should perceive a vast difference in the 
quality of the flour which is made of the grain. When 
grain is designed for seed, I always let it lie in the 
swath, one day or more, for the purpose of curing the 
straw as soon as practicable, so that the sheaves might 
be garnered immediately. 



Suggestions about Geaun" Cradles. 

Every man who ever uses a cradle, ought to under- 
stand why every part is made as it is — with its peculiar 
form. He ought to be able to tell what is the best 
form of the scythe, and the best curvature of the fingers, 
and how the fingers should stand with reference to the 
scythe. Although the great bulk of harvesting grain 
will probably be done with horse-power, still grain 
cradles will always be needed, even if horse-reapers are 
used to cut nearly the whole crop. Cradles must be 
employed to cut the grain around stumps, trees, along 
fences, to cut the corners of a piece of grain, when the 
reaper is in motion, and so forth. I^o farmer can get 



THE WHEAT CULTUKI8T. 



347 



along satisfactorily, without a good grain cradle ; and it 
is important for a laborer to know what constitutes a 
good cradle, how to put it in good order, and how to use 
it, so as to cut grain and lay it in a swath in a neat and 
workmanlike manner. 

The most correct form of a cradle scythe is a point 
which should be thoroughly understood and appreciated, 
whether one can obtain a scythe of the desired form 
or not. 




Fig. 54.— The best form of Cradle Scythe. 

A very straight scythe is quite as objectionable as one 
that has too much curvature. When it is too straight 
on the cutting edge, it will cut too squarely across the 
standing straws ; whereas the cut should be made in a 
drawing or sliding manner. If the scythe be straight 
on the edge, the fingers must of necessity be correspond- 
ingly straight. The illustration herewith given. Fig. 
54, represents a cradle scythe of a good form. It Avill 
be seen that the cutting edge from a to 5, about one 
foot in length, is a part of the arc of one circle ; and the 
other part, from h to is the arc of another circle of the 
same size, but in a different position. 

It may be seen by measuring, that these circles are 
about ten feet in diameter, and that the distance from 

in the dotted line, to ^, when a scythe is four feet 
long, is about two and a half inches. A cradle scythe 
of this shape works well, if it is properly hung on the 
snath, and the cutting edge kept in order. 



us 



THE "VTHEAT CULTUPvIST. 



The qnestion is frequently asked why a cradle scythe 
is made broader from the back to the cutting edge, than 
a grass scyrhe f The object of this is twofold. The 
first is to snppoit the grain after it is cnt off; and sec- 
ond, to foiTiish ample room for the straw to shde back 
from the cutting edge, against the fingers, after it has 
been cut oft*. If a scythe, no wider than a grass scythe, 
is attached to a cradle, as soon as the space from the 
fingers to the cutting edge is filled with straw, the 
scythe cannot cut off any more straw ; therefore, as the 
cradle is ^* faU.'^ it must slide over the rest of the clip. 

If tlie fijigers do not correspond with the curve of tlie 
scythe, a cradle will not work well, even if the scythe 
is made acc : r v>.^ :o the most perfect pattern. Fig. 55 
represents a ^: of the same form as Fig. 54. The 
object of it is to show the relative length and cm-vature 
of the fij-st finger of the cradle, when compared with 
the form of the scythe. The inside of the finger shouUi 




ri&. 55— BesT form ;.r.: : i:- - :: ±z~i7. 



extend at least two inches beyond the :: the scythe; 

and it is best to have the finger from one to two inches 
shorter than the scythe. The small end should stand 
over the point of the scythe, as represented in the 
figure, and be frcm one to two inches above the blade 
at the point. If the fii^st finger rests hard on the scythe, 
it sometimes prevents the grain dischargiuo: freely when 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



349 



the cradle is in use. The point of the first finger should 
always stand as far back as possible, and not catch any 
straws beyond the scythe. When some straws are 
palled down and not cut off, it shows that some of the 
fingers stand out too far. On the contrary, when the 
cradle does not gather all the grain that is cut off, some 
of the fingers are in too far, or are too short. Some- 
times every finger stands exactly in its most proper 
position, and the cradle does not gather all the grain. 
This can be obviated in two ways : first, by using a 
shorter scythe ; or second, by dulling about two inches 
of the cutting edge at the point. Sometimes the scythe 
and lower finger are all right, but the other fingers are 
so short that the cradle does not gather all the grain 
the scythe cuts off". This difficulty can be obviated in 
no other way than by attaching a scythe two or three 
inches shorter, and cutting ofi' the lower finger to cor- 
respond with the scythe, as shown by Fig. 55, and to 
be also of the correct proportional length with the other 
fingers. Fingers may be " too crooked," or too much 
curved near the points. It is a common occurrence to 
see cradle fingers like a sleigh runner — having nearly all 
the curvature within twelve to twenty inches of the 
ends. Cradles having such fingers never work well, as 
they carry most of the grain, after it is cut off, near the 
forward part of the cradle, which causes it to work hard, 
and to hang too heavily on the point, as well as to hold 
the grain too much, when it is being laid in a swath. 
When selecting a cradle, it is better to get a short 
scythe than one over four feet long. These two cuts 
of scythes and some of the matter, I prepared for the 
"American Agriculturist" when I was one of the edi- 
torial corps of that paper. 



350 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



Geixdixg- Ceadle Scythes. 

"isow, tvMle he brushes the dew from the clover, 
Lay the dull scythe to the steel-gnawing stone ; 
Turn with a vriU. boys, over and over ; 
IsTow the edge wires and the grinding is done." 

BlTELEIGn. 

In mj Young Farmer's Manual, the reader will find 
a diagram of a scythe, with more extended remarks 
about putting a scythe in order, than I shall pen in this 
place. There, the philosophical reasons are given for 
grinding a scythe, as directed. But I will simply cau- 
tion beginners, as well as some old heads, who think 
what they don't know is not worth the trouble of learn- 
ing, not to spoil an excellent cradle scythe by grinding 
the blade too thin. A large proportion of the cradle 
scythes that are condemned as poor stuff, or as having 
a poor temper, were ruined by grinding them too thin. 
Scythes are often ground and ground to death, by men 
who don't know how to put a jack-knife in order. 
Then, because the cutting edge fails, after the blade has 
been ground so thin that there is not steel enough to 
give proper stiffness to the basil of the scythe, the tool 
is condemned. Do not spoil scythes by grinding. 

How TO Ceadle Geain. 

"All strike as one, with a symphonant cadence; 
All step at once, with a measured advance ; 
Bowing together the bra-n-ny arm's aidance, 
Li the slow swing of the shoulders' expanse." 

BlTELEIGH. 

A gang of skilful cradlers, rakers, and binders, such 
as we used to see before the horse-harvesters took the 
place of the cradle, is a pleasant and cheering sight. 



THE WHEAT CULTIJEIST. 



351 



A good cradler mnst exercise no little skill in adjusting 
every part of the cradle to liang exactly right, or he 
cannot do neat work. Do not put the scythe and fin- 
gers out too far, especially if the grain does not stand 
erect. When all the parts of a cradle are made right, 
properly adjusted, and correctly handled, almost every 
straw will be gathered, as the scythe cuts them off. 

A good cradler walks close up to the standing grain — 
within a foot of it. He keeps his body nearly erect. 
He puts his right foot forward when he steps, and never 
the left foot first. There is a philosophical reason for 
this. I studied it ont when I first began to cradle, 
when I was only fourteen years of age. Point-in low 
and point-out low. Cut the stubble a uniform height 
across the swath; and do not scoop out a swath, by 
pointing-in high and pointing-ont high. Keep the 
scythe level ; and bring the cradle around, at every clip, 
as close to the left leg as you can. Lay the grain evenly 
at the butts ; and do not throw the tops around too far. 
Let your movements be rather slow and careful, until 
you can make every clip with as much precision as if the 
work were done by machinery. There are many things 
about cradling which I cannot write out ; but which 
can be learned only by the actual use of a good cradle. 



Ckadle Fingees, axd how to Make them. 

There are two kinds of cradle fingers : bent and nat- 
ural crook. Those having a natural crook are made by 
first sawing the log into plank thick enough for four 
fingers, or about two and three-fourths inches thick. 
Then, pieces are sawed out of the plank, with a scroll 
saw, of the desired curvature, which are then slitted the 



352 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



other way with a small circular saw. The fingers then 
have square corners, which are dressed off by hand, or 
machinery, which does the work very neatly and rap- 
idly. 

Bent fingers are made of very tough timber, first 
sawed into tapering strips just large enough for four 
fingers. These pieces are then steamed and bent, and 
sawed into fingers the same as if they were of natural 
crook. While the wood is still hot and on the form, or 
clamp, boiled linseed oil is applied to the outside sur- 
face, as long as the wood will absorb it. This is de- 
signed to prevent the fingers from straightening out, 
after the cradle is finished. The great objection to 
straight fingers is, most of the grain that is cut at one 
clip, will be gathered and held by the fingers so far to- 
ward the point of the scythe that a cradle will not work 
well, unless it cuts short clips ; whereas, if the fingers 
have a proper degree of curvature, the grain will slide 
back toward the heel of the cradle, as it is cut, thus 
enabling the cradler to cut a larger clip at once, and to 
handle the grain with greater facility. Another thing 
of primary importance in the form of cradle fingers is, 
they should be more curved than the back of the scythe. 
See remarks on pages 348 and 349. 

Raking and Binding Wheat. 

" The reaper binds the bearded ear, 
And gathers in the golden year ; 

Aad where the sheaves are glancing, 
The farmer's heart is dancing." 

In order to rake and bind grain satisfactorily, a man 
must possess a good degree of skill and tact to make 
every movement of his body and every motion of his 



THE WHEAT CrLTUEIST. 



353 



rake, feet, legs, and hands aid liim in his labor. He 
must not make any false motions, nor work like a man 
beating the air. Every motion must be easy and effect- 
ive. TThy Avill a small, light man frequently rake and 
bind as fast as two large, heavy men i Because he knows 
how to do it ; while the others alluded to are awkward, 
and labor to a disadvantage. It used to be a common 
occuiTence to see a small man raking and binding in 
heavy wheat, and keeping up close to a good cradler. 
I have frequently heard my father tell of his ambition 
and skill in raking and binding wheat after a good 
cradler, when the country was new, and the wheat was 
as high as their heads over the entire fields ; and that 
often, when on a strife — as cradlers were accustomed to 
race it in those days — he said he has raked and 
bound the swath alone, and took the last clip off the 
cradle, as he closed up every sheaf And it is not in- 
credible ; for, when I was a lad, it was an miusual 
occm-rence for two hands to follow one cradler. Some- 
times a boy would be employed to rake the swath into 
gavels, for another boy or man to bind. 

I well remember, when I was fourteen years old, as it 
was considered too hard work for a boy like me to rake 
and bind, and keep up with a man who cradled wheat, 
that another boy was hired to assist me. He was to 
rake the gavels and I to bind. But he was so unac- 
countably awkward, and made such miserable work at 
raking, that I refused to have his assistance, as both of 
us could not keep up with the cradler. He made such 
ill-shapen gavels, that I was reqtiired to spend more 
time in straightening up the gavels than I would occupy 
in raking them myself. Therefore, I performed the 
task alone, in good wheat ; have often done it since ; 



354 



THE WHEAT CTJLTirRIST. 



and I never met with a cradler whom I could not follow 
around a ten-acre field, all day, keep close to him, and 
do the raking and binding in a neat and workmanlike 
manner, and help shock the sheaves after the grain 
was all cut. 

I do not record these facts to boast of what I have 
done, but simply to show the superior skill that was ex- 
ercised when I was a young man, when compared with 
what we now perceive among those who rake and bind 
grain. In order to labor at this kind of work econom- 
ically and profitably, a man must understand how to 
take advantage of every circumstance. Raking and 
binding grain is a part of harvesting that should be 
neatly performed. If a man binds poorly, or does not 
rake clean, or makes a great many false motions which 
occupy time, consume his strength, but do not further 
his labor, he is an unprofitable hand, and should be 
taught the fii'st principles of raking and binding skil- 
fully and expeditiously. 

The Size of the Gavels. 

The importance of making the sheaves as nearly of 
a uniform size as is practicable, should be frequently 
impressed on the mind of every man and boy who 
binds gram, or who only rakes gavels. If the sheaves 
are to be stacked, it is far more important that the 
gavels should be of a uniform size, than if they are to 
be stored in a barn. For this reason, care should be 
exercised when grain is being cut down with a reaper, 
tp make the gavels — ^neither too large nor too small — 
but of a fair size. It is exceedingly inconvenient for a 
stacker to make a good stack of sheaves of various 
sizes, as there will be holes where the small sheaves are 



THE WHEAT CrLT[IRTST. 



355 



laid. And if the sheaves are not of a uniform length, 
even an experienced stacker will be liable to build an 
ill-shapen stack, that will not turn the rain so well, as 
if it had been made of sheaves of a uniform size. It is 
of eminent importance that the man who makes the 
gavels should understand all the advantages and disad- 
vantages of having sheaves too long, or too large, or too 
small, and poorly bound. 

My o^vn rule always has been, to make the gavels as 
large as they can be bound conveniently. This thought 
is always kept in mind when the reaper cuts the grain, 
as well as when the gavels are raked by hand. If gavels 
be so large that a binder cannot reach around one with- 
out making extra exertions, he will lose time and fall 
behind. On the contrary, if the gavels be made too 
small, too much time will be consumed in making bands 
and binding the sheaves. Many laborers do not seem 
to consider that it makes any difference whether they 
make twenty sheaves in going across the field, or 
whether the same amount of straw is bound into forty 
bundles, requiring nearly double the time. 

If the straw be so short that a double band will not 
extend around a gavel, of course, the length of the straw 
must be the guide in determining the size of the gavels. 
I always aimed to make the sheaves as large as they 
could conveniently be bound, for the purpose of econ- 
omizing labor. Eaking and binding only a few sheaves 
is really a small matter. But, when a quantity of grain 
is bound into 4,000 sheaves, when it might have been 
put into 3,000, without any inconvenience at all, we per- 
ceive a loss of time and expense required to bind 1,000 
sheaves. Besides this, there is a loss of time in loading 
and stacking. If a certain amount of grain sufficient 



356 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



to make 3,000 sheaves be bound into 4,000 sheaves, it 
will cost nearly one-quarter more to handle it when 
securing the crop, either in stacks or in barns. 

How TO Rake Gavels. 

Beginners — whether boys or men — should be instruct- 
ed how to rake gavels neatly, expeditiously, and by ex- 
erting the least strength. There is an awkward and 
laborious way to rake gavels ; and there is a neat and 
easy way of raking. The man who practises the for- 
mer, will work hard all day and perform but little ; 
while the latter will move along with amazing ease and 
rapidity, and perform his task in the most satisfactory 
manner. 

Two points should be kept in mind, one of which is 
to keep the butts even, and the other, to keep the gavel 
from running out much longer than the straw. In or- 
der to rake a gavel easily, keep the rake-handle nearly 
straight up and down, and move the leg that is against 
the butts, along with the gavel. This will keep the butts 
even, and the gavel of a uniform length. But, if a man 
does not keep one, or both legs against the butts of the 
straw, the gavel will be much longer than the straw ; 
and the sheaves will be awkward things to stook, as they 
will not stand erect without help. 

When making gavels of grain that is cut by a reaper, 
if the straw be of a uniform length and weight, it will 
not be difficult to gauge the size of the gavels, as a little 
observation and experience will enable an expert work- 
man to make them all of a uniform size. But, if half 
the gavels be made too large, and the remainder too 
small, the labor of binding will be greatly increased. 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



357 



"When closing np a machine gavel, or when raking a 
swath, let the head of the rake be always kept as nearly 
parallel, as practicable, with the straw. It is far easier 
to keep the butts of the straw even, when making a 
gavel, than it is to even them with a rake, after the 
gavel is made. 

Making Bands. 

It may seem trivial to dwell on the various manipu- 
lations incident to harvesting grain ; but laborers should 
understand how to perform every operation with the 
greatest possible ease, and in the shortest space of time. 
Some men will make a band and bind a gavel, neatly, 
before another man can make his band. Some binders 
separate a handful of straw into two equal parts, and 
tie the top ends together. But that is a slow and awk- 
ward way. Others double the ears of grain over, and 
catch them between the gavel and the band. But the 
lock is liable to become loose, when the gavel is being 
bound, or when the sheaves are handled. 

The mode adopted by all quick binders, and the most 
expeditious way to make a band is, to take a small hand- 
ful from the top of the gavel, and while separating it, 
hold back other straws with the other hand. Then 
grasp it with the left hand a little below the heads, and, 
dividing the straw with the other hand, take the half of 
the band at the right side, carry it quickly to the left 
side of the other half, so that the left half will rest on 
the back of the right hand. 'Now elevate the right 
hand above the left, thus throwing the butt ends of the 
branches of the band into the air above both hands. 
Pass the portion of the band in the right hand around 
all the heads of grain, and place the right thumb on 



358 



THE WHEAT CULTTEIST. 



tliem, and the lock will never separate when binding, 
if it is well made. 

BixDES'G Gatels of GeADs". 

I know of but few little things that are more pei'plex- 
ing and trying to the patience of an ambitions farmer, 
than poorly bonnd sheaves of grain. Sheaves that are 
poorly bonnd, will fall apart when one is making stooks. 
They imbind when the pitcher is heaving them on the 
load. The bands loosen when the loader is placing the 
sheaves, and from the time of binding, till the grain is 
laid down to be thrashed, poor binding is an intolerable 
nnisance ; and every good man whose ambition has not 
been paralyzed by pitching half-bound sheaves will 
breathe out grumbling and muttering, and sometimes 
denunciation without measm'e, at such perfunctory and 
miserable work. 

I was always accustomed to tell men and boys, 
who bound grain for me, If you do not bind one hun- 
dred sheaves in a day, do put the bands in the middle 
and bind the sheaves tight. In order to have employes 
work advantageously, I always would spend an horn* 
with au awkward laborer, instructing him how to make 
his band ; how to put it around the gavel ; how to take 
hold of the ends ; and how to form the lock and to make 
the tuck. 

Kow, in order to bind a gavel quickly, take the band 
in one hand, throw it forward of, and arouud the gavel, 
while the left hand is passed beneath the opposite side, 
palm upward, as sliown by figure 56, grasping the band 
in such a manner that its hold need not be relinquished 
until the sheaf is bound. When the hand grasps the 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



359 



band so that the hold must be relinquished and renewed, 
it often occupies time enough to finish binding the 




Fig. 56.— a Skilful Binder. 

sheaf. When the right hand is passing the band around 
the bundle, if the stubble is sharp and stiff, keep the 



360 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



band beneath the pahn. By this means the tender skin 
on the back of the fingers and hand, will be protected 
from the sharp stubble. 

There are in common use not less than three different 
modes of binding. One is, passing the right-hand end 
over the thumb, with a double twist and tuck; the 
next is, passing it under the wrist, with a double twist 
and tuck; and the third is, passing it beneath the left 
hand, making a nip about the left-hand end of the band, 
and a tuck beneath it, or, in common parlance, a nip and 
tuck." Sometimes binding over the thumb is perform- 
ed with a single twist and tuck. But, when boimd 
in this manner, unless the bands are drawn very tightly, 
sheaves are liable to unbind. 

Every laborer should learn to bind sheaves over the 
thumb, as he will be able to bind a larger number of 
sheaves in an hour than if he binds under the wrist. 
When binding a sheaf over the thumb, put one knee on 
the gavel and draw the band as tightly as practicable, 
and hold both ends with one hand, and with the forefin- 
ger of the same hand grasping the right-hand end of the 
band. !Now, while the left hand holds both ends of the 
band, whirl the right-hand end of the band around the 
other end with the right hand, giving them a twist, or 
two twists, which is better ; and tuck the twisted end 
under the band. 

The second mode of binding is done with the left knee 
on the sheaf; the right-hand end of the band is carried 
under the wrist of the left hand, and held by letting the 
wrist drop upon it, until the two ends are twisted togeth- 
er, and tucked under. Sheaves are bound in the " nip 
and tuck " style by passing the end of the band in the 
right hand under the left hand, then holding it with the 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



361 



left hand resting on the end of the band, when the right 
hand releases its hold, and renews it again above the left 
hand. Then the left-hand end of the band is bent over 
toward the binder, while the other end is brought 
around it and tucked beneath the band on the side 
toward the binder. When sheaves are thus bound, the 
left-hand end of the band forms a good handle for carry- 
ing the sheaf. 

Laboring Disadvantageously. 

When a laborer is greatly fatigued by toiling in the 
hot sunshine, every movement is a tax on his energies. 
It is fatiguing to stoop down and pick up one's rake. 
Most binders always throw their rake down on the 
ground, every time they bind a sheaf. Of course, they 
are obliged to spend the time and endure the fatigue 
required to stoop and pick up their rake as often as 
they make a sheaf. 

Now, if an active man will rake and bind one thou- 
sand sheaves in twelve hours, and if it consumes two 
seconds of time to stoop and pick up his rake at each 
sheaf, he must necessarily endure the fatigue of picking 
one thousand raises oif the ground, which will consume 
not. less than thirty-three minutes, besides the useless 
fatigue. During that length of time, he would be able 
to rake and bind not less than fifty sheaves, which is 
not a little saving with many hands. 

While a sheaf is being bound, the rake-handle should 
always rest against the shoulder of the binder, as shown 
by the last figure. This makes it easier work for him 
than to lay down and pick up his rake at every sheaf. 
As soon as a sheaf is bound, and the binder straightens 

16 



362 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



his body, liis rake is where he can take hold of it, with- 
out stooping to pick it off the ground. 

A beginner may experience a little difficulty in keep- 
ing the rake-handle against his shoulder, while he is 
binding a gavel ; but, by exercising a little patience and 
perseverance, a laborer will be able to work all day, and 
not be required to stoop down and j)ick up his rake a 
single time. When we have devised every possible 
means to lighten the labor of raking and binding grain, 
we find there is a great deal of hard work still to be 
performed. 

When gavels are neatly made, and bound tight with 
the band in the middle of the sheaf, as represented by 

the accompanying figure of 
a sheaf of wheat, every 
sheaf will stand alone, and 
it will require the force of a 
strong mnd to blow sheaves 
over. But when the band 
is placed near the butts of 
the straw, sheaves will often 
need rebinding, before they 
can be stored. Beginners 
who are slack, poor binders, 
can imitate this illustration 
of a sheaf, until they are 

Fig. 57.-A Sheaf neatly Bound. able tO make h a U d S O m 6 

sheaves which will stand 
erect without a boy to hold them when no wind blows. 
The tuck of the band is shown, in this figure of a sheaf, 
as well as it can be represented on paper. Beginners 
should see that the ends of the band are thrust under 
the band, so as to hold well. 




THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



363 



A Steaw-band Makee. 

Many farmers experience great inconvenience for 
want of long straw for making bands to bind bundles 
of straw when thrashing grain, as well as for binding 
stalks of Indian corn. Making straw bands by twist- 
ing them out of short straw by hand is a slow and 
tedious process. But by employing a twister, as shown 
by the accompanying illustration, straw bands can be 




Fig. 58.— Band Maker. 



made with satisfactory rapidity. "With such an instru- 
ment, a man and small boy can make a large number 
of bands in a day, when they have no other employ- 
ment ; and thus have them ready for use at any future 
period. 

The manner of making bands with this hook and 
crank is as follows : Secure a handful of straw or hay 
to the hook, while one person holds it with one hand. 



364 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



and turns the crank with the other. The person who 
lets the straw and hay out, should be seated on the floor, 
with a lapful before him. The twister walks backward, 
away from the layer, as the length of the band increases. 
The operation is similar to making ropes. The straw 
or hay should be wetted before it is twisted into bands, 
as the straws will not be so elastic as when dry. When 
wet, the straws will be very pliable ; and a very smooth 
band can be made fifty feet long in two minutes, if a 
person can lay out the straw skilfully. 

Make each band about fifty feet long ; lay it down on 
the ground ; let it dry one or two days ; then, with a 
sharp axe, cut the long bands or ropes into pieces of 
suitable length for binding sheaves. The pieces may be 
four, five, six, or more feet in length. The desired size 
of the bundles must determine the length of the bands. 
After the long hay ropes have become diy, the bands 
will not untwist when sheaves are being bound. 

To make such a straw-band maker, procure a piece 
of half-inch round iron, twenty inches long. Make a 
crank on one end and a hook on the other. Any black- 
smith will do the work for a dime. The circle of the 
hook should be about two inches in diameter, formed as 
herewith illustrated. The length of the crank should 
not be over six inches. If the crank be too long, the 
twister will find it far more fatiguing to his arms than 
if the crank were short. 

For a handle, bore a hole through a piece of straight- 
grained hard wood, shave it true and smooth, split it in 
two, through the hole, place it on the shank of the 
twister, and glue the edges together. Put a handle also 
on the wrist-pin. Persons who have never made bands 
viith such a device, will be sm-prised to learn how won- 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



365 



derfullj making bands in this manner will facilitate the 
labor of binding sheaves of any kind. 

A Binder's Day's Work. 

Before horse-reapers were employed to cut our grain, 
when young boys were ambitions to rake and bind 
grain, six hundred sheaves were considered a boy's day's 
work, and a thousand sheaves for a man. But if a man 
rakes and binds one thousand sheaves in the course of 
twelve hours, he must labor faithfully and understand 
how to make his band in the best and most expeditious 
manner, and how to bind by exerting the least strength, 
and in the shortest period of time. A laborer who re- 
ceives a man's wages, ought to rake and bind three 
sheaves in two minutes, on an average of the minutes in 
the working hours. Ambitions men will do more than 
this. But muttering laborers, who are always fearful 
that they are going to do too much, and who will let a 
sheaf drop half bound, when the dinner-horn' blows, will 
not rake and bind more than five hundred sheaves in a 
day ; and even one-fom*th of those will have to be re- 
bound before they are put in the mow. In these days 
of agricultural machinery, men and boys ought to edu- 
cate their ambition to accomplish as much as laborers 
could perform v/hen their fathers were young. But in 
most instances, our old men, now in their dotage, will 
mow around our common mowers, every ten rods ; and 
cradle around them twice in cutting across a ten-acre 
field ; and cut their corners at the end ; and then cradle 
around to the place of starting, and take a refreshing 
nap in the shade before their competitors come up, and 
are ready for another start. This is a fact. And I 



366 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTIBIST. 



record it to the shame of our young men, who lack the 
promptings of a laudable ambition to be able to do as 
much as their fathers could. A little skill and ambi- 
tion of a boy with a cradle or rake, will often surprise 
a strong man, who is as awkward as a poorly trained 
donkey. 

Shocking or Stocking Wheat. • 

" Now sheaves are slanted to the sun, 
Amid the golden meadows, 
And little sun-tanned gleaners run 
To cool them in their shadows." 

The " shocking manner " in which a large proportion 
of the wheat of our country is stooked — and in many 
instances by farmers who sustain a fair reputation for 
being skilful cultivators of the soil — is one of the chief 
reasons why the market is often glutted by such a large 
quantity of poor and sprouted wheat, and why there is 
such a serious complaint about poor bread. It is quite 
as annoying and shocking to a skilful farmer, to see his 
grain stooked in the awkward and perfunctory manner 
that is almost universally practised, as it is to a finely 
educated ear, to listen to harsh discords, when harmo- 
nious sounds were promised and expected. Were it not 
for the purpose of turning the water from the grain 
during showers of rain, the manner in which the 
sheaves are set up in stooks would be a matter of small 
account. But, since sheaves may be stooked in such a 
manner as to turn all the rain of a moderate shower, it 
becomes a subject of first importance to the wheat- 
grower to know how to set up the sheaves right. 
There is a right way and a wi'ong way to shock sheaves 



THE WHEAT CIJLTrRIST. 



367 



of grain ; and it is just as easy to adopt the right way 
as the wrong, when a laborer knows what is required. 
An active boy can be taught, in a short time, to shock 
grain so well, that the stooks will stand erect for several 
weeks without leaning or tumbling over, thus exposing 
the grain to storms. 

When I was accustomed to work on the farm, I 
shocked every sheaf of grain with my own hands, un- 
less it was not convenient for me to be in the field ; and 
the result was, that I could often haul my grain to the 




Fig. 59. — Setting- up Sheaves. 

barn, soon after a shower, while the sheaves of certain 
neighbors would be wringing wet to the middle ; and 
many of them would have to be unbound and spread 



368 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



out before thej could be dried. That was because the 
sheayes were stooked in such a shocking and perfunc- 
tory manner. Since shocking grain in a proper manner 
. is a subject of such eminent importance, I deem it 
proper to lay down the details in the manipulations of 
putting sheaves in stocks. 

How TO Handle Sheaves. 

When a laborer is carrying sheaves to the place where 
a stock is to be a made, he should either take hold of 
the band, or grasp a large handful of the straw near the 
band. But when the sheaves are to be set up, especially 
when long shocks or stocks are to be made, each hand 
should grasp a sheaf as represented by the preceding illus- 
tration (Fig. 59). Then the two sheaves should be set 
do^m at one thrust, witli the tops leaning toward each 
[ other sufficiently to settle toward each other. If one 

sheaf stands erect, and the other leans against it, both 
will soon fall to the ground. 

The accompanying representation of a stock of wheat 
put up as thousands of laborers shock grain, shows what 

a complete rain-catcher such 
a shock of grain is. Look 
at it ! The sprawling tops 
will not turn rain any bet- 
ter than a binder's old straw 
hat, when placed bottom-side 
upward in a hard rain-storm. 
The gavels were unskilfully 
made ; the binding was only 
half done ; and the sheaves 
were shocked in a most shocking manner, so that every 




, -ij^ 

Fig. 60.— Badly Shocked. 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



369 



drop of rain that falls within the area of such wide- 
spreading sheaves, will he conveyed by the straws 
down into the middle of the bundles. Look at the cap- 
sheaf! How much water will that conduct off the 
sheaves beneath it ? l^ot a single drop. Water always 
runs down hill. The manner in which that cap-sheaf 
is put on the stook, will be the means of collecting most 
of the rain that falls on it, and conveying it toward the 
band — down hill — and thus down into the sheaves be- 
neath it. Those sprawling tops of sheaves should be 
gathered into a smaller compass, and placed beneath the 
straw of the cap-sheaf, which should be spread out so as 
to carry the rain beyond the sheaves. 

The representation of a shock of wheat herewith 
given (Fig. 61), shows as nearly as is practicable how to 
stook wheat neatly, so as to 
turn off most of the rain. 
There are two cap-sheaves 
spread out on the tops of 
the bundles which are set on 
the buts. My own practice 
has always been to set about 
ten sheaves together, in a 
round and snug compass, and 
crown them with two caps 

^ „ - / Fig. 61.— Neatly Shocked. 

m stead oi one, as shown by 

the illustration. Fig. 61. Yet the cap-sheaf in this figure 
is not represented with the tops and butts spread as 
much as they ought to be. It is extremely difficult to 
show every important point on paper. But the reader 
should understand, that it is important to have the straw 
spi-ead all over the top of the standing sheaves, so that 
they will conduct the rain to the outside of the stook. 

16* 




370 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



SmGLE-cAPPED Stocks. 

A great many wheat-growers set their sheaves in 
round stooks ; and cap them with only one sheaf, as rep- 
resented by the accompany- 
ing figure 62 of a shock of 
wheat. . But I never ap- 
proved of this mode of 
stooking sheaves of any 
kind ; because more skill is 
required to put on the cap- 
sheaf, than is necessary 
when two cap-sheaves are 

Fi«.62.-Eound Shock of Wheat, employed, as shown in a 

preceding figure. In this 
style of stooking grain, one of the largest sheaves is 
selected for the cap, and placed with the butts upward. 
During a heavy shower of rain, that large butt-end of 
the cap-sheaf will catch, in some instances, more than 
a gallon of water, all of which will be conducted down 
into the sheaf, and much of it will pass down among 
the grain beneath the cap ; whereas, the rain that falls 
on a stook having two cap-sheaves, like the shock on a 
preceding page, will nearly all be conveyed off the grain 
to the ground. 

Although I prefer making stooks with two caps, still 
I will pen directions to enable a beginner to shock his 
grain neatly, with one cap-sheaf. 

The number of sheaves in a stook, will depend in a 
great degree, on the size of the bundles and the length 
of the straw. My practice always was, when making 
stooks without assistance, to set up the largest sheaf per- 
pendicularly for the middle of the shock ; and then, set 




THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



371 



eight more sheaves around it, being careful to lean them 
all a trifle toward the middle sheaf. "When setting up 
the outside sheaves, one hand must support the middle 
sheaf from being thrust from its perpendicular position, 
until sheaves have been placed on the opposite side. 
After the circle is complete, as shown by the accom- 
panying diagram of stars, gather in all the ^ ^ 
spreading straws and lopping bunches of ^ ^ ^ 
grain, and form a snug round top. Then, ^ ^ 
having previously chosen the sheaf having * 
the longest and straightest straw, loosen the band, hold 
the ends with one hand, and chuck the bundle down on 
the ground, butt-end first, and bind it again with the 
band about eight to twelve inches from the butt-end of 
the sheaf. 'Now place the sheaf again on the butt-end, 
and break the straw down horizontally in every di- 
rection from the centre of the sheaf. Then place 
this cap on the stook as represented by the illustra- 
tion on page 376. 

For the purpose of corroborating the excellence of this 
mode of shocking grain, I copy the notes of J. J. 
Thomas, of the " Cultivator and Country Gentleman," 
who writes : Two years since, when the wheat was 
almost universally injured or spoiled by rains during 
harvest, the only exception which we met with was a field 
belonging to an extensive farmer, tlie wheat of which 
was cut early — a week before the common time — and 
well secured in shocks, like that shown in the preceding 
figure. The grain thus secured remained in the field 
uninjured through all the rains, and ripened into excel- 
lent bright, plump wheat ; while all the other fields of 
this farmer, and all the wheat of his neighbors, were 
nearly ruined. We will describe a systematic method 



372 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



which we have practised for many years, and Ttnow that 
it operates well : 

" 1. Grain should be firmly bound in smaller sheaves 
than it is almost nniversally bound. Loosely bound 
sheaves cannot be well sliocked ; they also admit more 
rain than tightly bound ones. 

" 2. Two men can shock better and more advantage- 
ously than one. 

" 3. Let the shocker always take two slieaves at a time, 
holding them with his elbow against his side, bringing 
the heads together with hands well spread upon them. 
Lift them as high as possible, bringing them with force, 
in as nearly a perpendicular position as can be, to the 
ground, l^ever make the second thrust^ if the sheaves 
stand erect, for every one after the first, by breaking 
the butts, makes the matter worse. 

"4. Let two persons bring down tioo sheaves each at 
the same time^ as described above, being extremely care- 
ful to keep them perpendicular. The form ^ ^ ^ 
of shock at this period, may be represented * * * 
thus : 

" 5. As lastly stated, two more each, thus : ^ ^ 
The reader will perceive we now have ten ❖ * 
sheaves, forming a circle as nearly as can be. * * ^ 

" 6. While one man presses the head of the ❖ * 
shock firmly together, let the other hreah^ not bend, the 
two cap sheaves, and place them on well-spreading heads 
and butts. 

" The main points are, to have grain well hound.^iQSiVe?, 
to be stood in an erect ^position, and then put cap-sheaves 
on firmly^ and every gust of wind will not demolish your 
work." Let boys, and awkward men also, observe these 
directions, till they can shock grain neatly. 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



373 



How TO Make Long Shocks. 

When sheaves of any kind are set np in long shocks, 
the stocks should stand north and south, rather than in 
any other direction, so that the sun may shine on one 
side in the former part of the day, and on tlie opposite 
side in the afternoon. If the stocks be set up in an 
east and west direction, the north side of the sheaves 
get the benefit of very little sunshine, while the south 
side receives more than an equal proportion. 

When those laborers who cannot set up sheaves satis- 
factorily, carry the bundles together, they should be 
taught to lay the sheaves in two rows, tops toward each 
other, with about three feet space between the heads. 
Then, the operator takes a sheaf in each hand, and 
chucks them down on the butts, once only, on the ground, 
with the tops leaning inward only a little. The sheaves 
should not lean as far as the rafters of a house. After 
they have been set down, press the tops together. Then 
set up two more sheaves, close to the first pair ; and then 
two more ; and so on, until the shock is finished. If a 
sheaf is chucked down more than once, the butts will 
be broken and bent around in various directions ; and 
the sheaves will not maintain their erect position so 
well as they will when jammed down only once. Long 
shocks may be made of any desired length. But great 
care should be exercised, that the sheaves do not lean 
lengthways of the stock. If they be set up correctly, 
they will stand erect as long as it is desirable to allow 
the grain to remain in the field. Whether the sheaves 
be set up in long shocks or in round shocks, a sheaf 
should never be jammed down on the ground more than 
once, if we would have it stand up well. 



374 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



Wooden Grain and Hay Caps. 



The accompanying illustration represents a shock of 
wheat covered with wooden caps, which may be made 
at a cheap rate, when lumber and labor are cheap. 
They may be made in the following manner : Saw out 
a lot of sticks of hard wood, four feet long and one and 
a quarter inches square. These are to be employed as 
a ridge pole to a barn roof. Select wide shingles, sea- 
son them thoroughly in the sunshine, until the wood 
will not shrink any more ; then joint the edges and nail 




Tig. 63. — Wooden Grain Caps. 

the butts to the miniature ridge-pole. Such a roof will 
cover a cock of hay of large size, or a shock of wheat, 
keeping it dry through any storm. The only question 
is, whether they will not be too costly, and inconvenient 
to handle. But tapering shingles would be lighter than 
shingles of uniform thickness. Thin boards of bass- 
wood, whitewood, or pine, not more than one-fourth of 
an inch thick, would subserve quite as good purpose as 
wide shingles. Such caps could be carried to and from 
the field in a wagon ; and packed in a small compass 
in a "nest," like wooden bowls. It would be necessary 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



375 



to make the tops of tlie cocks of such shape that the 
wooden caps would fit well, and not be blown off, even 
by high winds. At times, where there is but little to 
do, such caps might be made and painted with coal tar, 
to prevent the shingles shrinking and swelling by the 
action of showers and sunshine. 

If four feet in length should not be of the right length, 
they can be made five or six feet long ; and several caps 
can be put on a long shock. 

Cloth Grain Caps — How to Make them. 

As there is so much uncertainty about having fair 
weather during the days of harvest, grain caps, or hay 
caps, for covering shocks of grain in stormy weather, 
seem to be almost an indispensable requisite to success- 
ful agriculture. Indeed, I think that grain caps are far 
more important than a mowing-machine, or a reaper. 
If I could have but one of the two, I should consider it 
most economical to purchase a hundred dollars' worth 
of hay caps, rather than a mower and reaper. The 
chief reason why they have not been introduced more 
generally is, the expense of procuring the material for 
making them. Besides this, few farmers really under- 
stand and appreciate the eminent value and advantage 
of such appendages. I think, that if a farmer who has 
been accustomed to secure his crops without grain caps, 
will employ them during a wet season, he would ever 
after be unwilling to dispense with their use. When a 
farmer has a crop of grain ready to be garnered, and the 
clouds pour down torrents of rain, so that every sheaf 
would be wet through and through, and many of them 
have to be unbound before the grain could be dried, I 



376 



THE WHEAT CULTrEIST. 



cannot describe the feeling of transcendent satisfaction 
which that farmer experiences, when he goes to his 
fields after a heavy rain has fallen, and finds every 
sheaf diT enough to cart to the barn I On the contrary, 
witness the woe-begone countenance of him who fore- 
sees the hard labor of drying his wet sheaves ; and who 
grieves over the large quantity of sprouted grain, per- 
haps wheat for his family ! 

In localities where long and heavy storms of rain are 
apt to prevail during the haying and harvest season, 
every farmer ought to prepare a good supply of hay 
caps, not only for protecting his hay while it is in cock, 
but for protecting his cereal grain, and Indian corn- 
stalks, when they are in the shock. Such caps will 
often pay for themselves, in a single season, in protect- 
ing hay only. But, after the hay has been gathered, 
they will be found quite as serviceable for protecting 
barley, wheat, and oats. That farmer who has never 
used them has no correct idea of the great advantage of 
hay caps, both in making hay and in protecting grain 
from rain. 

If, for example, one has a lot of hay that is ready to 
go into the mow or stack when a hea^w rain is at hand, 

he can put on his caps in a 
short time, and his hay or 
grain will receive no dam- 
age. Then, as soon as the 
storm is over he can re- 
move his caps, and go to 
work immediately at his 
grain or hay. On the con- 
trary, had it not been for 
• the protection of his caps, the damage done to his hay 




THE WHEAT CULTTJKIST. 



377 



or grain might have been more tlian equal to the value 
of the caps. 

I liave examined various ways of making hay-caps, 
and among them all I can recommend the following 
mode of making them as the most convenient to han- 
dle : Procure common sheeting, or bed-ticking, or any 
kind of cloth, one yard or two yards wide, and make 
the caps about six feet square ; let the rough edges be 
hemmed. 'Now turn up each corner about three inches, 
and sew them down tightly. Work a small eyelet-hole 
near each corner, like Fig. 64, for the wooden pins to go 
through into the hay. The pins may be made of any 
hard, straight- grained wood, about sixteen 
inches long. These pins can be made the most 
expeditiously by sawing off a log of green 
timber, and split it out, as one would rive 
out staves. Then shave them, so that they 
will be about half an inch round at the large 
end, with a knob on one end, and pointed at 
the other end. The neatest way would be, 
to have the pins turned, like the illustra- fig. 65. 

. Grain-Cap 

tion here given. Pin- 

Painting Gkain-Caps. 

Some people paint their caps ; but this renders the 
cloth rotten, and very stiff. But unless the cloth is 
very good, they will not turn the rain during a very 
heavy shower, if the cloth is not painted. Others have 
saturated the caps with a solution of alum, and some 
quicklime ; but I cannot recommend this preparation. 
Yet the following preparation I can endorse, even for 
rather poor cloth. If the caps are made of heavy bed- 



378 



THE WHEAT CIJLTIIEIST. 



ticking they will not let the rain through, should it rain 
a week or more, even if they have not been smeared 
with any preparation : 

Make a paint of three parts of coal-tar and one part 
of benzole, or benzine, or spirits of turpentine, and 
apply it to the cloth, in hot weather, and you will 
have caps that will last as long as one man will need 
them. 

The most expeditious way to put the caps on a cock 
of hay or stook of grain is, let two men throw a cap 
over the top, and draw it down, both together, and 
thrust in the pins into the eyelet-holes, with the points 
a little upward. Weights in each corner of the caps 
will hold them well ; but they are said to be very lieavy 
to carry around, as one hundred caps must necessarily 
weigh some six or eight hundred pounds. The editor 
of the "Cultivator and Country Gentleman" says: 
" We experimented this season on this modern protect- 
or, and the result is, that I believe the small caps of 
three feet square are comparatively useless — those one 
and a half yards square the best size. Those not oiled 
did not keep out the wet effectually, but those dipped in 
boiled oil repelled the rain of nearly a week's duration, 
so as to require but an hour's airing of the cocks to fit 
them for drawing. The stones sewed in the corners 
will, I think, be abandoned on trial, as they make them 
too heavy to move in quantities ; besides proving inade- 
quate in a brisk breeze to retain them in their place ; 
while pegs not only hold them on, but also spike the 
hay from caking off the top, as it sometimes does, cap, 
stones, and all. When weights are employed at the 
corners of caps, one pound, at least, at a corner, will be 
as light as the weights should be made." 



THE WHEAT CrLTUEIST. 



379 



More about Grain or Hay-Caps. 

Hay-caps are sometimes made four feet square, hav- 
ing a wooden pin fastened in the middle of each cap, 
which pin is thrnst into the top of each cock. Then, 
there are pins fastened to small cords at each of the four 
corners. But the centre pin is of little use, while it in- 
creases the expense ; and four feet square is quite too 
small, to protect cocks of an ordinary size ; or, to pro- 
tect shocks of grain. 

Experience teaches, that caps will usually be more 
convenient, when they are made with eyelet-holes at 
each corner, for receiving the pins, than when the pins 
are fastened to the middle. When they are made as 
recommended, the pins can be carried in a basket, and 
the caps in a large roll, very conveniently ; and if the 
holes be made at the corners, the caps can b§ used to 
cover a stack with ; whereas, they could not be so em- 
ployed, when the pins are fastened to the corners with 
cords. The caps should all be made of a uniform size ; 
and the holes should be marked out by a pattern, so that 
the caps will all be just alike. 

Now, to protect, or shingle a long stack with caps, 
begin at the top, and lay one cap on one side of the 
stack, and another one on the opposite side ; and, let a pin 
be thrust through a hole in the corner of four different 
caps on the top of the stack. Then put another course 
of caps below the first course, and put a pin at the 
corners. Round stacks cannot be covered with caps in 
this way. But, long stacks, and stacks that are only 
partly finished, which need to be protected from a 
shower of rain, can be covered with caps made as di- 
rected in a few minutes, so as to turn a heavy rain. 



380 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



Scott's Pate^^t Gkindee. 

This invention consists of a grindstone turned off true 
on the side, as well as on the periphery, and supported on 

a frame, as repre- 
sented in thefigui'e. 

Tlie giindstone 
is adjustable to any 
requu-ed angle, and 
the cutter bar, or 
knife, is secm-elj 
held in the swing- 
ing frame, and 
placed at the pro- 
per bevel. The 
stone slides the 
whole length of the 
frame, and grinds each section to its proper bevel with 
great accuracy and facility. 

Every person who has had experience in grinding the 
sections of mowing machines, will appreciate the valne 
of such a device. The grinder is manufactured by 
Kichardson & Co., Auburn, T. ; and has met with 
excellent favor wherever it has been introduced. 

How TO Pitch Sheaves. 

There are numerous little considerations which a 
pitcher must understand perfectly if he would pitch 
sheaves easily and expeditiously. In the first place, he 
should have a fork and tines much strai^hter than for 
pitching hay or straw. A fork with crooked tines, and 
spread wide apart, is a disagreeable tool to pitch with. 




Grinding Machine Knives. 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



381 



as the tines stick in the sheaf, and require more of an 
effort to withdraw them than if they were straighter, 
or not so mncli curved. 

Another thing is, always thrust the fork into the 
sheaf astride of the band, unless the band be loose, and 
near one end of the sheaf Beginners should be in- 
structed how to take up a sheaf with a fork, and how to 
give it a skilful turn while it is on the fork, so that it 
will land in the most desirable position. An active 
boy of only ordinary strength, if he have skill, will 
pitch sheaves more satisfactorily than a strong, but 
awkward man. 

In order to pitch off a load of sheaves easily, the 
pitcher should take them up in the reversed order in 
which they were laid down, as the sides frequently over- 
lap each other. These suggestions, it is hoped, will be 
sufficient to enable beginners to aim to perform the task 
of pitching with a good degree of skill. 

How TO Load Sheaves of Wheat. 

"When building a load of sheaves on a wagon or cart, 
there are several points to be kept in mind by the load- 
er ; among which are — carrying up the sides uniformly, 
so that the load will ride safely to the barn or stack, and 
placing the sheaves in such a manner that the load may 
be pitched off' with facility, carrying all the loose grain 
with the sheaves. Loading sheaves, so as to save even 
only a quart or more of the best of wheat at every load, 
is an item of importance, when the grain is worth three 
dollars or more per bushel. The first sheaves, when 
making a load, should not be thrown hap-hazard into 
the rigging, unless the bottom and sides are grain-tight. 



382 



THE WHEAT CULTIIKIST, 



But let the loader take each sheaf as it is pitched and 
place a course of sheaves across one end of the rigging. 
Then lay the tops of another coui'se of sheaves on the 
ears of the preceding bundles. If the sheaves be placed 
in this manner they will catch all the loose grain that 
may be shelled out of the other sheaves. One or two 
courses more will be sufficient to fill the rigging. This 
rigging, or box, or " shelving," on which the sheaves are 
carted or hauled, should not be filled flush with the out- 
side before the first course of sheaves is laid in the 
desired place. If the middle be filled even with the 
outside shelving, the sheaves will be apt to slide off the 
sides before they can be secm-ed by a middle com-se. 
After the middle is filled, lay a large sheaf on each cor- 
ner first. The object of placing a large sheaf on the 
corner is to keep the corners a trifle the highest. K the 
corners be carried up true there will be no difficulty in 
putting a load on square. 

A mason, when building a brick house, always car- 
ries up his corners first, as the corners are a sure guide. 
A loader must do the same thing. Let the but ends of 
the sheaves be laid beyond the shelving, nearly to the 
bands which encircle them. Place the sheaves as close- 
ly together as they can be conveniently pressed. If the 
ground be rough, so that the sheaves are liable to be 
jostled out of place, lay the binding course of sheaves 
in the middle. When loading the Mnding or middle 
course of sheaves, place the tops of every alternate sheaf 
in the opposite direction. Select the smallest sheaves 
for the middle, so as to keep the outside of the load 
a trifle the highest. When the middle appears too full, 
let two courses of sheaves be laid around the outside, 
and only one course in the middle, as fast as the outside 



THE AVHEAT CrLTTRIST. 



383 



courses are laid. It is always better to lav tlie middle 
coiu'se of sheaves across the load, instead of lengthwise, 
becaiisej when laid crosswise, they keep the outside 
courses from working ontward. If a load be made nn- 
iisiiallY wide, and the middle sheaves be placed length- 
wise of the wagon, upon passing over a rough or nneven 
way. the sheaves will slip and slide about, and half of 
them will fall to the groimd. when not a sheaf would 
have moved out of its place, had the middle com*se been 
laid crosswise. 

"VThen the sheaves are short, the butts must not be 
laid so far beyond the shelving as when they are long. 
The load should be so wide that the bindino; course of 
sheaves will extend almost to the bands of the sheaves 
of the outside courses. In order to load sheaves well, 
the loader shonld move on his hands and knees, and 
place the sheaves as close together as practicable. 

Another very important consideration is, to have 
every sheaf pitched clear from the butts of the last 
com'se of sheaves, and placed on the top of the load, as 
no man can make a load with true sides, when the per- 
son who pitches thrusts his fork against the last coin-se, 
so as to displace the sheaves. 

When a mason's hod-carrier, through lack of skill, or 
from heedlessness, knocks the bricks or stones out of 
place, after they have been laid in the wall, he hears 
from the "boss" in emphatic language; and he seldom 
repeats the careless offence. A man or boy who is load- 
mg sheaves on a wagon should watch his work as close- 
ly as a mason observes the courses of the wall which he 
may be building. If the foregoing directions ai'e ob- 
served, a loader will find no difficulty in building a load 
that will not tumble off the wagon. 



384: 



THE WHEAT CFLTUEIST. 



How TO Mow She AYES of Wheat. 

There are two modes in vogue of mowing away 
sheaves of wheat, colloquially called the "Yankee mode" 
and the "Dutch fashion." When sheaves are mowed 
according to the Yankee mode, a course of bundles is 
laid around the outside of the mow, with the butts out- 
ward. Then another coui'se of sheaves is laid inside 
of this first course, with about half the length of the 
sheaves lapping on the course beneath. The old way 
is to lap the hutts of the second coui'se on the first course 
of sheaves, and thus continue to work round and round 
until one course laid in the middle covers the surface 
of the mow. In some instances the toj)s of the sheaves 
are lapped on the first com'se, instead of the butts. 

Those who practise this manner of mowing their grain 
aver that when the butts are placed outward, rats and 
red squirrels find it more difiicult to work into the mid- 
dle of the mow than when the slieaves are not mowed 
in the foregoing manner. But experience proves that 
if such animals have access to a mow of grain, they will 
destroy as much grain when one style of mowing is prac- 
tised as another. When a barn is not entirely rat-proof, 
or when a stack is not placed on a platform beyond the 
reach of rats, it is folly to think of mowing such ma- 
rauders out of the middle of a stack or mow. 

The Dutch manner of mowing is to lay courses of 
sheaves back and forth entirely across the mow, letting 
the tops of each course overlap about half of the sheaves 
of the preceding course. This manner of mowing sheaves 
is decidedly preferable to the practice of laying the 
courses round and round, until one sheaf will finish in 
the middle of the mow. This Dutch system has every- 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



385 



thing to recommend its adoption over the Yankee mode, 
as a much larger number of sheaves can be mowed in a 
given space, and they can also be mowed more conve- 
niently; and when the sheaves are removed from the 
mow they can be taken up more readily than when they 
are mowed in the style just alluded to. 

Another consideration of no little importance is to 
work always, except the bottom com'se, from the back 
side of the mow to the front. In practice this will be 
seen to be more convenient than to work from the front 
to the back side of the mow. 

It may seem trivial to expatiate on such minor topics. 
But laborers who are always seeking the easiest and 
most expeditious way to perform every laborious opera- 
tion, appreciate such little details in giving directions 
for saving labor. When a mow is first commenced, 
however, the first course should be laid on the front side 
of the mow, instead of the back side. The object is to 
save all the loose grain. If the mower begins his work 
on the further side of the barn, or bay, all the loose grain 
that falls from the sheaves, both when mowing the bun- 
dles and when pitching them ofi" the mow, will fall to 
the floor. But if sheaves be mowed as directed, and be 
taken up, when they are pitched ofi*, without turning 
them over, the loose grain will all be carried along with 
the sheaves, instead of being left, perhaps, where it can- 
not easily be collected. Every observing farmer will 
perceive all the advantages which have been stated, and 
some others also, by working from the back side of the 
mow to the front side, after the bottom has been cov- 
ered with one course of sheaves. 

One suggestion further, which few persons ever think 
of, is this : The mow, for example, is forty feet long. 

17 



386 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



The sheaves are pitched on one side, near the middle. 
It will be easier for both the mower and the man who 
pitches the sheaves to the mower, if he will work from 
each end toward the middle of the mow, instead of mow- 
ing from the middle to the end of the com-se of sheaves. 
The advantages will be perceived a* soon as these direc- 
tions are observed. The mower should always work 
toward the pitcher. The man who pitches can make 
very hard work for a mower by throwing the sheaves 
wrong end first ; or he can facilitate the labor of mow- 
ing, simply by the exercise of a little skill in turning the 
bundles as lie pitches them, so that every one will fall 
directlv lief;)re the mower, with the heads Avhere they 
should be. 

In order to mow sheaves neatly, and thus be able to 
get as much grain as possible into a given space, the 
mower should move on his hands and knees, placing the 
sheaves as closely together as they can be crowded. 
Sometimes sheaves can be kept closer to each other by 
placing a sheaf say ten inches distant from the one be- 
neath the knees of the mower, and then by crowding 
another bundle between two sheaves and placing the 
knees on it. By adopting this method a much larger 
amount of grain can be mowed in a given space than 
if the sheaves be put in the mow in a perfunctory man- 
ner. TTlien barn room is scarce, it is important to know 
how to make a limited amount of space subserve a given 
purpose. 

The CaytCtA-Chief Reapee. 

The Cayuga-Chief represented by the cut is a com- 
bined two-wheeled machine. It can be changed in a 
few moments from a mower to a reaper. The cutter- 



388 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTIRIST. 



bar can be set to cut any desired height. The platform 
and cutters can be adjusted to any angle desired, for 
the more perfect cutting and easy delivery of lodged as 
well as standing grain. 

The raker's seat is comfortably and conveniently lo- 
cated, and can be adjusted so as to enable the operator 
to sit in any position he may desire. Many farmers, 
when using this machine, di-ive the team and handle the 
rake at the same time. 

The grain is delivered at the side of the swath, giving 
abundant room for the team and machine between the 
gavels and the standing grain. 

The reel is overhung and driven so as to operate 
properly at all times. As a harvester, the drive-wheels 
have a bearing surface of sixteen inches ; and the weight 
is so distributed that the machine will operate success- 
fully on very soft ground. When mowing or reaping, 
this machine turns as easily as a cart, cutting square 
corners without any backing of the team, being sup- 
ported on its own wheels, and balanced independently 
of the tongue. The raker's seat and platform preserve 
their proper relations to each othei', and the injurious 
and annoying vibrations experienced in machines 
balanced by the tongue are prevented. 

The best evidence of the success and popularity of 
this machine is found in the fact that upwards of twenty 
thousand are now in use throughout the United States. 

The machine is also manufactured of smaller size by 
the " Cayuga-Chief Manufacturing Company " at Au- 
burn, ISTew York, and is used extensively as a mower 
in the grazing regions. 

It is now manufactured by the president of this com- 
pany, Mr. C. Wlieeler, who is a practical farmer and me- 



THE WHEAT CrLTURIST. 



389 



chanic, the inventor of the machine ; and he makes it his 
sole business to study and experiment for the " Chief," 
and keep it fully up in all respects with the improvements 
of the times. I am assured by this com.pany, that they 
are taking especial pains in the selection of material for 
their machines, so that farmers have the assurance that 
the Cayuga-Chief machines will be unsurpassed for 
strength of juaterial^ workmanship^ perfection of finish^ 
and durability. They say, that they intend that the 
" Caj^uga-Chief " shall, hereafter, excel all others in 
mechanism and excellent material^ as it has heretofore 
done in its combinations of valuable principles. I can 
say from personal knowledge of the Cayuga-Chief for 
several years, that I can confidently recommend it to 
farmers who desire a good mower and reaper. Mr. 
Wheeler has expended a fortune in bringing the " Chief" 
to its present state of perfection ; and the brain-labor 
expended, from first to last, in originating, changing, 
and improving the various parts, is truly wonderful to 
contemplate. 

Stacking Sheaves of Wheat. 

It requires the combined knowledge of an intelligent 
practical farmer, a natural philosopher, and the con- 
structive skill of an architect to build a good stack. 
The chief object to be kept in view is, to place the 
sheaves so that the~ straws will conduct the water off the 
stack. Let me illustrate the idea more plainly : Let a 
shed be covered with rails, or poles, laid horizontally, as 
a roof; and, ^vhen it rains, all the water will pass down 
between them ; but elevate one end of the same poles 
to an angle of forty-five degrees, and they will convey 
nearly all the rain that falls on them, to the lower end. 



390 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



straws of wheat represent poles. When the sheaves lie 
horizontally, the rain will pass readily down between 
the straws. But elevate one end of the sheaf to the 
above-mentioned angle, and the straws on the upper 
side will carry off nearly all the water. Very little of it 
will find its way into the sheaf Water always flows 
down hill. 

The Foundation of Stacks. 

The first thing in building a stack is, a suitable foun- 
dation to keep the dampness from injuring the grain. 
When rails or poles can be obtained conveniently, they 
will subserve an excellent pm-pose. A good foundation 
may be readily made of plank, by placing four planks 
on their edges, with other planks or boards resting on 
these for the stack. A stack should always be so high 
from the ground that dogs and cats can go under them. 
This will give a circulation of air under the stack, and 
the cats a chance to keep it free from mice, rats, gophers, 
etc. At any rate there must be a foiuidation of wood 
sufficient to keep the grain from acquiring moisture from 
the earth. This done, it is always a good practice to 
make a round stack about a pole set firmly in the ground. 
This will keep it erect when it is settling. When mak- 
ing a round stack, where there is no pole in the middle, 
it will always be found advantageous to stick a fork at 
the middle, keeping it there as the stack is carried up. 
Then a stacker can always judge whether he is carrying 
up the sides true. 

How TO Place the Sheaves. 

In building a stack of any kind, there are two points 
of great importance to be observed. The first is to 



THE WHEAT CULTUETST. 



391 



carry up a stack true ; and the next is to place the sheaves 
or material in the best position to carry off the rain. 
Always begin in the middle to lay the first com'se of 
sheaves. Set a centre pole firmly in the ground, and 
brace it secm^ely on four sides. The braces will not 
interfere with the stacking. Sow set up shea^ es around 
the centre pole, letting them all lean toward the cen- 
tre. Place a pole against the centre pole, and carry 
the other end entirely around the outside of the stack - 
bottom, in order to have the last course of sheaves on 
every side of the pole at a uniform distance from the 
centre pole. 

When the bottom course of sheaves is laid, lay an- 
other course on the outer side ; and if the circumference 
seems too low. lay two courses of sheaves, one above 
the other, and tread them down firmly. Xow lay 
another course on the inside of the first one, letting the 
butts lap on the tops of the outside course, ahnost to 
the bands. The butts should never extend beyond the 
bands. Keep the stack nearly level, until it is carried 
up to the top of the bilge. The middle should be kept 
full, and a few inches higher tlian the outside ; and the 
sheaves should be well trod down. If the middle 
be kept much higher than the outside, before tlie stack 
is built as hmli as the bilo;e, the outside com-se of 
sheaves will continue to work outward, and the stack 
will spread faster than it is desired to have it. The 
outside course of sheaves should be placed as close 
together as they can be, to prevent large holes in the 
outside, where rain will find its way into the sheaves be- 
neath. To pre\'ent the slieaves slipping outward, ele- 
vate the top end of every bundle when placing it, as 
the stacker is represented as doing, in the figure ; and 



392 



THE WHEAT CULTURI3T. 



thrust the butts on the underside into the course below 
it. When they are simply laid down without this secu- 
rity, the courses are very liable to slide off. This is one 




Fig. 67.— Stacking Wheat. 

of the manipulations in stacking that but comparatiyely 
few understand. I haye seen half a wagon-load of 
sheayes slide at once from the side of a stack built by a 
man who was ignorant of this part of stacking. As the 
straAy of barley and cornstalks is very slippery, it is 



THE WHEAT CULTUKI8T. 



393 



difficult to keep the courses from sliding, unless tlie 
butts of every sheaf are secured in this way. 

To Prevent a Stack from Leaning. 

A common and effectual way is to build a stack 
around a tree. Then it must settle evenly ; and main- 
tain an erect position. Another way worthy of adop- 
tion is, to set a stiff pole in the ground ; and brace it 
firmly, on four sides, as previously alluded to. This will 
be as effectual as a tree. If the pole be set two feet in 
the ground, and the soil be w^ell rammed around it ; and 
braces four feet long be nailed to the pole at the upper 
ends ; and if the lower ends be secured at the surface of 
the ground by a flat stake, a hurricane would not dis- 
turb a stack. "When a long stack is made, two or three 
such poles should be set up. It requires but a little re- 
sistance to keep a stack erect. But, after a stack has 
settled over, it is no easy job to put it back to an erect 
position. 

Bracing stacks, after they begin to lean, is often re- 
sorted to, by thrusting rails, or poles, against one side. 
This practice, however, is not to be commended, as poles 
thrust beneath the bilge of a stack, will often turn up 
the courses of the sheaves, so that the straws will slant 
toward the middle of the stack, in which position they 
will convey the rain inward, instead of conducting it 
off the stack. 

Another mode of maintaining the erect position of a 
stack is, to brace one side, with a plank and pole, or with 
two planks, as represented by the braces shown in Fig. 68. 

The upright plank should stand in a perpendicular 
position, so that the side of the stack may settle down 

17* 



394: 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



witliout leaning from its erect position. The brace should 
be secm'ed in its place by nailing a cleat above the upper 
end across the npiight planh, as represented by the illus- 
tration. Fig. 6S ; and bv driving a broad stake at tlie 
lower end of the brace. If one such brace be not suffi- 
cient, a half dozen may be placed on one side of a stack. 
Then, after the stack is done settling, the braces may be 
removed. But if the ends of braces be thrust against a 
stack, they cannot be taken a way at pleasure. 

Fni-thermore, when tall stacks are in danger of being 
blown over by a hig-h. wind, this manner of bracing them 
will be found more convenient and efficient than any 
other mode. 

What Causes a Stack to Lean". 

When a wheat-stack has been built as true as the form 
of an egg, it will sometimes settle sideways so far as to 
fall over unless braces are applied in time. This fact is 
a mystery to most persons : and they often ejaculate, 
inquiringly, WJiat does make it lean f " 

The prime cause must always be attributed to im- 
perfect workmanship when building a stack. I will 
mention certain things that cause a stack to lean. When 
all the grain is pitched on the stack at one side, the 
heft of the sheaves and the tread of the man who 
pitches them to the stacker, keeps that side pressed 
down more compactly than the stack is on the opposite 
side. Of com^se the side that is trod down the most will 
settle least. The settling of the opposite side, more 
than the side on which the pitcher stood, causes the 
stack to lean. 

Another cause of leaning is, the sheaves are laid out 



THE WHEAT CTJLTrEIST. 



305 



farther on one side than thej are on tlie opposite side. 
There being nothing to snpport the overhanging bilge, 
that side of the stack settles mnch more than the 
other. The consequence is, that the courses of sheaves 
on one side of the stack will be turned np, at the batts. 
to snch an angle, that the rain wUl be conducted to- 
ward the middle of the stack instead of running off the 
oatside. It is eminently important, that the straws on 
the outside courses of the stack, should always be so 
incliaed downward, that they will conduct the rain out- 
ward, firom straw to straw, until the water will all flow 
off the bilge of the stack. 

H'jw Tr' Top Off a Stack. 

If the stack is being built of sheaves, the middle must 
be kept so fuU that there will be a good inclination of 
the straw in the butts of the bundles. This is always 
a much oerrer onide than to attempt to keep the mid- 
dle of the :k at a certain height above the outside. 
The srackr- > ; move on his knees, as already stated 
on a : " - - e : and, in order to keep the sheave 
close : ri' as they can be conveniently, he should 
lay eujA ;_rai partly on the side of the one last laid ; 
and as it is pressed down with the knees, hold it from 
slipping with both hands. By this means a much larger 
number of bundles may be secm-ed in a smaller compass 
than otherwise. Ii the straws only have a suitable in- 
clination to carry the water outward, instead of toward 
the middle of the stack, rain will injure but a small 
portion of either straw or grain. If one side of a stack 
should be lower than the other, it may usually be cai*- 
ried up even, by using the large sheaves for the lower, 



396 



THE WHEAT CFLTUr.IST. 



and the smaller ones for tlie higher side. This onesided- 
ness should be guarded against before the stack has 
become onesided. The straight est and handsomest bun- 
dles should be placed, in the outside course, for the 
pui-pose of keepmg the stack of the correct shape, as 
well as carrying oxf the rain better, than tangled bun- 
dles, which should form the inside com-ses, whenever 
there is any difference in the sheaves. If it is necessary 
to have a man or boy stand on the stack to pitcli the 




Fig. — A Stack Braced, to Prevent Leaning. 



sheaves to the stacker, he sliould always remain as near 
the middle as practicable, and not travel about so as 
to displace the sheaves, after the stacker has left them. 
Keep the middle full, the furm circular, and draw the 
com'ses iii gradually. TVlien the stack is not built 
around a pole, sharpen a small rail or scantling, and set 
it erect at the centre, bv thrusting it in, two or three 
feet, so that it will stand while the top is built around 
it. As the area of the top of the stack diminishes, con- 



THE WHEAT CULTUEI5T. 



397 



tinue to place the sheaves more erect, until the straws 
the last course incline at an angle of abont forty-five 
degrees. Bind the tops of these secnrelv to the pole. 
Then make a large bundle of long rve straw, wet it 
thoroughly, so that it will keep in place better : and hav- 
ing bonnd it ^vith one band, at about one-third the dis- 
tance from the top to the butts, slip it down over the top 
of the stake, and bind the top with several Ijands, as 
represented in the illustration. Spread out the butts 
evenly, and rake tliem down straight. A stack made 
according to the foregoing directions Avill tm-n heavy 
showers almost as well as a shingle roof, and the water 
will all fall clear of the bottom of the stack 



FrETHER SrOGESTIOXS ABOUT StACKIXG. 

A writer in the ••^^isconsin Farmer " recorded the 
following suggestions about building stacks : 

In the Eastern and Middle States very little grain, 
or even Iiay. is stacked out. In those regions, it is re- 
garded as shiftless for a farmer not to have barn-room 
enough to cover all his crops. The sentiment probably 
grew, in part, ont of the old method of thrashing all 
the grain out by the flail, which recpiired a barn-tloor 
and high guards on either side, to keep the grain from 
flying over and wasting ; and partly from the small cost 
of barns in early times. 

But most of om- farmers are from the East, and 
never learned to build a stack, to do which, or to make 
an axle helve, requires either a man of genius, or a good 
deal of training. But the less a man knows about either, 
the more apt he is to think he can do it first rate ; and 
the consequence is, that large quantities of grain are 



398 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



spoiled every year by bad stacking, especially of wlieat. 
A farmer should never attempt to stack liis own grain 
unless lie is sure lie knows liow ; and he can never be 
sure of that until he has a vivid recollection of the time 
when he did not know how. In Great Britain it has 
long been the custom to secure grain in stacks ; and they 
have brought the art to a great deal of perfection ; and 
every farmer who has not learned the art himself, should 
secure the services of some English, Welsh, or Scotch 
farmer to do that job for him until he has thoroughly 
acquired the art himself. 

" A man may understand sometliing about the theory 
of stacking without being an adept in the business. 
Building a stack correctly can only be acquired by prac- 
tice under the eye of a competent instructor. But tlie 
theory is useful, if for nothing but to enable the farmer 
to know when he has found a competent practical man. 
This theory, as we have seen it practised by English- 
men, is substantially as follows : " 

Topping Out a Stack. 

"When laying sheaves above the bilge of a stack, the 
same writer says, commence in the centre by setting 
up sheaves as for a round shock, adding course upon 
course, setting the butts of each succeeding course a 
little more out, so as to have the outside coiu-se at 
about the angle of a quarter-pitch roof, being care- 
ful to force the butts down on the next course so they 
will not slip and flatten down as w^eight is added. Let 
this last or outside course, in working from the centre, 
serve as the first course in the layer which you 
make back to the centre, laying the butts of the next 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



399 



course about even with the bands of the course un- 
der it, and thrusting the butts of each bundle, as jou 
lay it, into the bundle under it, to prevent its slipping 
outward by pressure. Go round with a single course, 
keeping your work before you and pressing down the 
bundles with your knees. Then lay another course in 
the same manner, lapping at the same place, and so on 
till you get to the centre. Then commence again at the 
outside, leavino; the butts of the first course even with 
those of the lower course, or projecting a little over, 
being careful as before to catch the butts of the new 
course into the lower one, and work inward as before. 
The outside should be as little pressed as convenient, 
in building, and the inside packed as close as possible, 
so that the pitch of the bundles outward will be in- 
creased rather than diminished as the stack settles. If 
the heads of the bundles do not keep up the pitch of 
the sheaves equal ' to that of an ordinary roof, when 
above the bilge of the stack, put in extra sheaves, in any 
way which will keep the surface regular in form. 

" The butts of each outside course should project a little 
over the course below it until you are ready to draw in, 
so that the stack, when done, will have the shape of a 
hen's egg, a little flattened at the large end. A little 
marsh hay makes a good cap, which should be secui*ed 
against the winds by ropes made of the same, placed 
over the top and held by weights at the sides. When 
you see a man build a stack in this way, you may know 
he understands his business ; but do not imagine you 
can do it yourself at the first or second trial." I have 
given these rather tautological directions, in the stacker's 
own language, that beginners may understand them the 
better. 



400 THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



Dodge's Ohio and Buckeye Reapee anb Self- 

EAKEE. 




The beautiful illustration on this page represents 
an excellent combined mower and reaper, made by 
Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Company, Au- 



J 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTLRIST. 



401 



burn, 'New York. This macliine is a neat mower, 
and can be rigged for harvesting in a few minntes. 
Large numbers of this style of mowers and reapers 
have been manufactured ; and wherever they were 
introduced, farmers have been well satisfied with their 
operations. The workmanship is of a superior charac- 
ter ; the draft is light ; material is good and durable ; 
and the macliine is well adapted to all kinds of work. 
The self-raker consists of four independent rakes, so 
constructed as to allow all of them to be in use for reel- 
ing on the grain, or, by a slight movement of the hand 
or foot, causing either rake to rake off the cut grain, in 
any sized gavels required. 

Waener's Sulky Hake. 

This wooden rake combines all the advantages of 
both the Sulky and Old Eevolving Kakes. By means 




Fi(,. TO.— Sulky Hake. 



of the lever with its cams and stops, the driver has 
more perfect control over the rake than can possibly be 
had over the old-fashioned revolver. It does not dust 
the hay as wire teeth usually do ; is easily handled by 
a boy ; and the inclination of the teeth is easily regu- 
lated, so as to pass over any obstacle, or dip into a 



402 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



swale. The draw-bars are jointed, so that the rake can 
be folded up, npon the sulky, and thus be easily trans- 
ported. This rake is made by H. I^. Tracy, Essex Junc- 
tion, Vermont ; by Blymyer, Day & Co., Mansfield, 
Ohio ; and Blymyer, l^orton & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 



Alden's Wheel Rake. 

The illustration herewith given (Fig. 71), represents 
an excellent spring-tooth rake, which I can recommend 




Fig. 71.— Alden's Wheel Eake. 



as being a valuable, labor-saving implement. The cut 
furnishes such a correct idea of it, that I shall give no 



THE A\TIEAT CCXTUEIST. 403 

description of it. M. Alden & Co., Aubiirn, Xew York, 
are the only manufacturers that I know of. 

The Buckeye Mowek axd Eeapee. 




The illustration accompanying these notes represents 
the celebrated Buckeye Karvester with the self-raker 



404 THE TTHEAT CrLTTJIMST. 

attaclimeut, wliicli is very liglit. simple, and compact, 
its weight "being no greater than that of an ordinary 
hand-rake attachment. It does not interfere in the 
slightest degree with the simplicity of the machine as a 
mower, and is very readily and easily attached and de- 
tached. The following is the description of the Self- 
Haker giren in the official report of the great Anbm'n 
trial, when the Buckeye won snch world-wide fame : 

" A disk with four joints carries four rakes or sweeps 
with rollers at right angles, which work in inclined 
ways, with a switch, which makes them act as beaters 
or rakes at pleasure. The rake-teeth drop down nearly 
to a level with the guards to catch lodged grain, and 
pass over a rake-guard, to prevent the teeth from 
springing down on the guards in rough ground, the 
rake rising quickly afterward. The inclined ways are 
adjustable, to give different motions to the rake. The 
ability which this arrangement gives to the machine, 
to cut long or short grain with eqnal facility, without 
making tedious adjustments, constitutes its greatest 
merit. It will deliver the gavels in regular intervals 
of space when the grain stands equal in height and 
thickness, or the rakes may be regulated by the hand or 
foot of the driver so as to deliver any size of gavels that 
may be desired, or by fastening the switch open, it will 
deliver the grain in swath. It has cleaners hinged 
so as to brush back the grain which collects on the 
dividers while acting as reels, leaving it in good shape 
for the rake to deliver.'- 

The "Buckeye" is still mauufactm-ed by Adriance, 
Piatt & Co., 165 Greenwich street, l^ew York city ; 
and the best thing I can record for this reaper and self- 
raker is to mention the fact that, after ha^iiig been put 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



405 



to the most severe tests in mowing and harvesting 
heavy and tangled grass and grain, it was driven into a 
field of heavy rye, which was seven feet high, and every 
part, self-rake and all, worked as beautifully as a lawn 
mower. The "Buckeye" needs no words of commend- 
ation from my pen. American farmers are familiar 
with its worthy record. 

The Montgomery Fork. 

I give an illustration of this celebrated fork, made by 
the Montgomery Fork Company, 254 Pearl street, l^ew 
York city, because it is just such 
a fork as farmers will find to please 
them. The illustration shows how 
the tines are secured to the handle. 
Some of the merits of this fork are 
^ „ „, ^ these : In case a tine breaks, an- 

FiG. T3. — The Montgomery ' 

Fork. other can be replaced instantly at 

a trifling cost, and without loss of time. In repairing 
one tine of a common fork, the other tine is invariably 
spoiled, rendering the fork good for nothing. Should 
the handle break, the tines can be refitted to another 
handle in a few minutes. The handle is not tapered 
at the end near the fork ; but, the whole strength of 
the wood is left ; and when the ferrule is in its place it 
binds the whole together, as if one solid substance. 
The process of manufacture gives a more uniform 
texture of steel than can be produced by any other 
method. The weight is no more than the common 
fork. The tines are warranted not to work loose. 
This fork took the first premium at the 'New York State 
Fair at Bufi"alo, 1867. 




40G 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



CHAPTER V, 

Mildew in Wheat. 

There have been volumes penned about mildew in 
w^heat, and other plants ; but I am sorry to be obliged 




Fig. 74. — Mildew in Wheat. 



to record that, after all that has been said, we know 
very little about it. In order to give wheat-growers 
something of an idea of mildew, I herewith furnish an 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



407 



illustration (Fig. 74), which represents the mildew of 
wheat, greatly magnified. To the naked eye these beau- 
tiful fungi seem more like the minute particles of dust 
on a miller's hat, than anything else. 

To the practical wheat grower the great question is : 
What is mildew? what causes it? and, ivhat is the 
remedy f 

I answer in brief : Mildew is a disease of the grow- 
ing wheat. The plants are covered with a white sub- 
stance, which is made up of minute fungi, which ap- 
pear in spots on the straw, 
sented by Fig. 74, are minute 
plants, growing on the wheat 
plant, and extracting the juices 
that should be appropriated to 
the development of the grain. 
After reading scores of pages 
about mildew, in which various 
plausible theories are broached 
by one author, and the same 
theories controverted by an- 
other author of equally reliable 
authority, I have to again ac- 
knowledge that we know little 
about the cause, or the remedy. 

By referring again to Fig. 
74, it may be seen, that the 
ends of the delicate creeping 
threads bear spores^ or sporules^ 
which fall ofi', an] fly like dust, in the a'r. Some- 
times these spores form quite a little cloud. Strange 
as it may appear, these infinitesimally small parti- 
cles of dust are seeds, so to speak, from which millions 



These parasites, repre- 




FiG. 75. — Eust magniiied. 



408 



THE AVHEAT CIJLTOilST. 



of plants spring. The spores are borne along in 
the wind, among the growing wheat ; and wherever 
the straw is not perfectly liealthr, and able to resist the 
attacks of snch parasitic fungus, the seeds adhere to the 
diseased leaves and stems, germinate, grow, and tend to 
destroy the crop. 

There are many kinds of mildew and rust, which 
originate from spores. Fig. To represents a magni- 
fied view of a small portion of what is scientihcally 
called uredo riibigo vera^ in which the spores are repre- 
sented with a sort of basket-work extending from one 
to another. 

Smut m Wheat. 

The illnstration herewith given (Fig. 76) represents 
a magnified view of what is scientifically known as 

livedo caries^ which is common 
to wheat ; and seldom attacks 
any other cereal plant. The 
dark-colored excrescences rep- 
resent the spores or seeds of 
the uredo caries. Unlike other 
maladies, this one takes its ori- 
gin in the interior juices of the 
wheat plant ; and afi'ects the 
kernels, instead of the straw. 
The pericarp of the kernels of 
wheat contains a black mate- 
ria. T6.-smut magnified. ^..^^^ greasy to the touch, in- 
stead of flonr. The dust of caries, nnlike that of 
smut, emits an unpleasant odor; and the nauseous 
smell is sometimes perceived in wheat bread. The 
semeniform grains of the caries (Fig. 76) attach them- 




THE WHEAT CULTCEIST. 



409 



Belves to the minrLte hairs that are usually seen with the 
naked eye on kernels of wheat. ]\Iachinery will sel- 
dom remove these spores. Therefore, their removal 
must be effected by soaking the grain, and applying 
some chemical snbstance, that will decompose the spor- 
nles, without injuring the germs of the kernels of wheat. 
Those spores adhering to the sound grains at the time 
of sowing, remain in that state, till the young plant 
starts its growth, when they are supposed to enter the 
spongioles of the roots of the young plant ; and, with 
the ascending sap, are propelled through the tissues of 
the plant, till they reach the young ovum, where they 
find a suitable place for vegetation, rendering fecunda- 
tion impossible. Yet the grains continue to swell ; and 
when harvest conies, they are perhaps larger than the 
healthy ones ; and curiously enough, the stigmata of the 
flowers are not destroyed. 



PiCKLiN'G Seed Wheat. 

In this important operation the science of chemistry 
affords the practical wheat-grower important aid. We 
have seen, on the two preceding pages, how smut or 
" bunt " is propagated. The object now is to destroy 
it. The basis of all pickling or dressing consists in 
converting the greasy, oily sporules which adhere to the 
sound grains into a soap, which facilitates their removal. 

Sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) is sometimes em- 
ployed for pickling wheat, in the following manner: 
Four pounds of the vitriol should be dissolved in about 
two gallons of boiling water ; and when fully dissolved, 
placed in a large tub — an old hogshead cut through the 
middle answers the purpose very well ; and add about 

18 



410 



THE WHEAT CULTUP.I5T. 



twenty gallons of cold water. Procui'e a wicker basket, 
of suitable shape to go into the tnb, large and strong 
enough to hold a bushel and a half of wheat. Place the 
basket in the liquid, and gently pour into it the wheat. 
By adopting this precaution, the light and imperfect 
grains, chaff, or small seed will float at the top ; and 
may be skimmed off the sm-face. Having proceeded 
thus far, lift the basket, and allow it to di-ain over the 
tab. Empty the same, and proceed with the next lot. 

While the seed is soaking, let it be stirred with a 
stick, for a few minutes. By this means, all the light 
and imperfect kernels may be worked to the smiace, 
and skimmed off the sm'face of the water. For each 
four or five bushels of wheat, dissolve one pound of blue 
vitriol in water sufiicient to cover and properly soak the 
wheat. Some farmers say, let it remain in this soak 
twenty to twenty-four hours, and sow immediately after 
taken out of the soak. But there is great danger of 
soaking the seed too long. It requires but a short time 
to destroy the sporules of smut. So soon as the spores 
are destroyed, the seed should be removed from the 
soak, or steep. The seed should not be kept in the 
liquid long enough to moisten the germs. The main 
point is to remove the material that adheres to the ex- 
terior of the kei'uels. Spread the wet seed on a floor, 
and sift lime, or gypsum, or ashes over the surface ; and 
rake it in. This will render the seed diy, so that it can 
be sowed, or drilled in, without difficulty. 

A Xorth Carolina farmer says, that the best prevent- 
ive of smut is, to make a brine strong enough to bear 
an egg ; pom- this as hot as the hand can bear into a 
half-l)arrel tub ; put in half a bushel of the wheat you 
are about to sow ; stir it up well in the tub ; let it set- 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



411 



tie two or three minutes ; skim off all the light grain 
and chaff that rises to the top ; stir it up again ; repeat 
skimming ; then pour off the brine, which can be 
warmed again, and used for another lot of wheat. 
E"ow spread the wheat on clean boards or a cloth in the 
sun, or on the barn floor, or any convenient place. 
Take slacked lime and sift enough over the brined wheat 
to cover it well ; and as soon as dry, put it into a bag or 
basket for sowing. Some farmers damp the wheat in a 
heap on the floor, and mix up two or three quarts of 
lime with it, and then spread it out upon boards. If in 
the sun, it will dry in half an hour ; if in the shade, it 
sometimes takes two or three hours. But, let no man 
suppose that his crop will be safe from smut, unless he 
has first secured a hardy variety of wheat, as laid down 
in another part of this book. Various preparations of 
vitriol, nitre, sulphur, and arsenic have been tried, in 
some instances, with considerable benefit. Our agricul- 
tural papers and books are full of directions for the 
treatment of seed wheat. But let the reader beware 
of puerile experiments with his seed, such as he will 
find recorded on page 318. 



Experiments with Smtjt in Wheat. 

For the purpose of determining the influence of smut 
on sown grain, Mr. Bailey, of Chellingham, tried experi- 
ments on seed in which were a few balls of smut. One 
third of the seed was steeped in urine, and limed ; one 
third steeped in urine, dried, and not limed ; and the othei 
third sown without steeping or liming. The result was, 
that the seed which had been pickled and limed, and 
that which was pickled and not limed, was almost free 



412 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



of smnt, while that which was sown without under- 
going this process was much diseased. The following 
experiments were made at Lord Chesterfield's farm of 
Bradlj Hall, in Derbyshire : The first was on a peck of 
verj smutty wheat, one-half which was sown in the 
state it was bought, and the other washed in three 
waters, steeped two hours in brine strong enough to 
float an egg, and then limed. The result was, that two- 
thirds of the wheat grown from the unwashed seed was 
smutty, while that produced by the steeped and limed 
seed had not a single ear of smut. The second experi- 
ment was made ujDon some very fijie wheat, perfectly 
free from smut. A quart of this was washed in three 
waters, to make it perfectly clean ; it was then put for 
two days into a bag in which was some black dust of 
smutty grain ; and the result was, that a large portion 
of wheat thus sown was smutty, while out of twenty 
acres sown with the same grain, not inoculated, not one 
smutty ear was found. Mr. Taylor, Jr., of Ditching- 
liam, near Bungary, rubbed a number of ears of wheat 
with the powder of smut, having moistened them to 
make the powder adhere ; one-half of these were washed, 
wetted with chamber lye, and limed. A similar quan- 
tity of dry wheat was then procm^ed, the whole being 
dibbled, each parcel by itself. The produce of the in- 
fected wheat was three-fourths smut ; the same infected 
wheat, stee^Ded and limed, was perfectly sound. The 
contagious smut-powder adheres to sacks and barns with 
which it has been in contact ; it attaches itself to the 
straw and chaff", and is thus probably in many instances 
carried from the barn and stable doors, when the dung 
is taken green to the fields, without being properly 
turned and fermented. The infection may indeed be 



THE ^VHEAT CULTITRIST. 



413 



carried bj the wind from other fields, and in various 
ways which cannot be gaarded against. But no per- 
son, who is duly sensible that the disease may be 
checked, if not wholly eradicated, by careful attention, 
should hesitate to employ all those means of preven- 
tion which may be in his power. The barn in which 
wheat has been either stored or thrashed, should therefore 
be thoroughly aired, and every corner swept ; if also 
the walls of the interior were well washed with strong 
lime-water, the precaution would not be improper ; and 
sacks which have held the infected grain should be im- 
mersed in a similar solution." 



Eegoted IVheat. 

A writer representing the Botanical Society of Can- 
ada West, records the following suggestions concern- 
ing the ergot in wheat, in that province. But little is 
known of ergot in wheat in the States, except in certain 
localities. The writer says : 

" In addition to the various pests that have already 
been noticed as aifecting the wheat crops this season, 
there is one in more than usual abundance, viz. : Ergot. 
This is a very remarkable fungus, Clamcejps jpiLrjpiirea^ 
Fr., which swells up the grain into an enlarged, black, 
touo;h mass. If a field of wheat be examined, it will 
be seen that some of the ears have one or more large, 
black, horn-like processes projecting from among the 
grains. These are the ergoted grains. This disease is 
common in many parts of this province. 

" Ergot of wheat has similar properties to ergot of rye, 
but is by no means so common in Europe. On the 
American continent, however, it appears to be more 



414 



THE WHEAT CTJLTTJEIST. 



abundant, and especially this season. The ergot now 
present in the wheat fields will, of course, damage the 
sample of grain by blackening, and render the flour to 
a certain extent unwholesome, if not separated. For- 
tunately, the ergoted grains being much larger in size 
than the uninfected ones, there is no great practical 
difficulty in separating them during the cleaning of the 
grain. The wheat ergot has no disagreeable taste, in 
fact no decided taste of any kind, only a slight flavor of 
mushrooms is perceptible, after chewing for some time. 
When we reflect on the energetic physiological action 
of ergot, it will be seen how important it is that the 
ergoted grains should be carefully cleaned out, not only 
to improve the sample, but to render the grain and flour 
wholesome. Bad grain is apt to be given to pigs and 
other domestic animals. Ergoted grain cannot be used 
with impunity in the preparation of food for either man 
or beast." 

Whatever may be the cause of ergoted wheat, the 
remedy is effectual and practicable, which is this : pro- 
cure hardy and proliflc varieties of wheat ; save the 
seed from year to year as directed in this book ; culti- 
tivate thoroughly on rich ground ; and put the seed 
through a pickle, as directed on preceding pages. If a 
man sows the wind he reaps the whirlwind. If he sows 
smutty or ergoted wheat, the product will be smut and 
ergot, just as certainly as he mil be able to raise good 
grain when superior seed is employed. 

Rust in Wheat — the Remedy. 

Without occupying space in attempting to tell what 
rust is, and how it is produced, I shall endeavor to point 



THE WHEAT CITLTTJEIST. 



415 



out the remedy for it. The reader can find all the 
theories about rust that he will care to read, in works 
on agricultui'e, where the remedies are not recorded. 
The forlorn farmer often rails at the climate, and 
cries out that his wheat is killed bj rust, while in fact it 
has died from starvation — from the want of that food 
which, as a provident husbandman, it was his duty to 
have provided for it. 




Fig. TT. — Magnified section of Straw, showing Silica deposits. 



The illustration herewith given represents a small 
section of the thin pellicle, or skin, of the stems of grow- 
ing wheat, highly magnified, and showing the manner 
of depositing silica in the epidermis of the stalk. Silica 
is a substance that imparts stifihess to straw. The 
liquid silica is deposited all around the straw, similar to 
enclosing it with a thin glass tube. Silica is what ren- 
ders wheat straw so harsh and stiff. 

Now, then, the practical consideration is to sup- 
ply the roots of growing wheat, in large abundance, 



416 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



with such materials as giassmakers use for making 
glass, which are sand and potash, or soda. The pot- 
ash can be obtained most economically by the appli- 
cation of wood ashes. By this means the growing 
stems will be enveloped in a glass-like covering, which 
will resist the attacks of rust and mildew. The more 
ashes, with a dressmg of sand, that can be applied to 
wheat soil, the less liable the growing wheat will be to 
suffer injury from rust, mildew, or insects. 

Insect Ene^es of Wheat. 

The principal insect enemies of wheat are the nxidge, 
the Hessian fly, the chinch bug, and the weevil. As 
ahuost every agricultural paper and book contains de- 
scriptions and illustrations of the insects injurious to 
wheat, I shall pen but brief remarks about any of them. 
The main point will be to offer suggestions relative to an 
eff'ectual preventive of the ravages of the wheat insects. 

Every successful wheat-grower will readily admit 
that one of the most effectnal preventives of the ravages 
of wheat insects, is a rich soil thoroughly tilled. It in- 
variably happens that the crop is most seriously injured 
on lands that have been carelessly tilled, and have be- 
come impoverished by an exhausting course of cropping. 
The thin, puny plants on such soils, that are not entirely 
destroyed, are left still more enfeebled ; whereas, when 
the fly-time has passed, on the well-tilled fields, properly 
enriched, the wheat, in a great measure, recovers from 
the slight injury. I might pen a score of pages about 
the habits of wheat insects, and their mode of propa- 
gation and ravages ; but I will cut everything short by 
simply stating, that the correct way to avoid injury from 



THE WHEAT CULTUEI8T. 



417 



wheat insects is, to commence Avith the seed first, as 
directed in the chapter on Seed Grain. Follow all the 
minute directions about cultivatino^ and fertilizins: the 
soil, so as to produce a luxuriant and healthy growth of 
both straw and grain ; sow the seed at the most pro- 
pitious period ; and the growth of the grain will be so 
healthful and rapid, that the insects will do but little 
damage. Read the remarks about The Best Time to 
Sow Wheat, on pages 260-269. 

Levi Bartlett, an experienced farmer of Warner, 
K. IT,, writes : 

" To avoid injury from the ravages of the midge, 
some farmers, when the season will permit, sow early, 
sometimes in the latter part of April. In favorable 
seasons the wheat gets into blossom before the fly makes 
its appearance, and thus the grain mostly escapes the 
midge and rust. Others prefer sowing their wheat late, 
say from the 20tli of May till 1st of June, the midge 
having generally disappeared before the wheat comes 
into bloom. But late-sown wheat is more liable to 
suffer loss from rust, mildew, etc., than the early sown. 
From better manuring of the land, and more care in its 
preparation for the reception of the seeds, wheat-grow- 
ing is evidently upon the increase in this State ; tliough 
much of this increase is derived from the more extended 
culture of winter wheat within the past ten years. 
Winter wheat can be grown, yielding good cro23s, on 
low-lying farms, where it was useless to attempt the 
raising of spring wheat, for tlie reason that the winter 
wheat would, when sown early, and on suitable soil, get 
so far advanced in growth before the appearance of the 
midge fly, as to entirely escape its ravages, provided the 
soil is tilled with grain-producing pabulum." 

18* 



418 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



Ha:bits of the Wheat MroGE. 

This insect remains in the earth in its larva state, at 
least ten months in the year, and buries itself in the soil 
from half an inch to two inches in depth. This is true, 
at least in regard to the larger number of them. Others 
remain in the chaff of the wheat, and are conveyed to 
the grain-mow, or the stack. But there is no positive 
evidence that these ever become sufficiently vitalized to 
perpetuate their species, although, according to experi- 
ments made by Dr. Fitch, of 'New York, there is reason 
to believe that they do. Certain kinds of wheat are 
less liable to injury from the attacks of these insects 
than others. See page 47. Dr. Rathvon is of the 
opinion that the larvae of the wheat midges do not im- 
bibe the milky fluid of the young wheat grains ; but 
feed upon the epidermis or outer integument, and that 
the destruction or injury of this, is what causes the ulti- 
mate depletion of the grains. 

Mr. Kathvon is also satisfied that the wheat midge 
has not the power to puncture or penetrate the chaff of 
the wheat with its ovipositor, for the purpose of deposit- 
ing its eggs upon the grain ; nor do the larvae reach 
it through such a puncture. But the grain is reached 
through the separation, or opening of the valvules 
that enclose the grain, generally when it is in bloom. 
The largest number of the eggs of the insect are de- 
posited on the outside of the chaff, where they are 
either washed off by the heavy rains, or are bm^nt or 
dried up by the hot sun. But, in whatever way 
these insects may injure the growing wheat, the only 
effectual remedy has already been given, on pages 415 
and 416. 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



419 



Wheat Woems. 

In several States, numerous farmers have observed a 
kind of minute caterpillars on their growing wheat, 
such as are frequently seen on red clover. The editor 
of the " Western Rural " states that they are supposed 
to be identical with the clover worms, which may be 
seen spinning down from lofts on which clover has been 
stored. The caterpillars assume the form of chrysalids 
in September and October ; and the perfect insect ap- 
pears in June, and deposits its eggs on the wheat, 
shortly after the ears have shot out. These worms are 
called by various names, in different localities. In some 
places they are spoken of as gray worms, and in other 
localities wheat worms. It is not probable that any of 
the eggs are attached to the ripened grain ; but in order 
to guard against danger from this source, and also to 
kill any of the insects that have not been separated from 
the grain by the fanning mill, the seed should be steeped 
in a strong brine, and afterward mixed with dry lime. 
By this treatment, insects and tlieir eggs will be 
destroyed, and smut prevented. Chaff which con- 
tains large numbers of these caterpillars, should be 
burned. 

The true remedy, in addition to the foregoing sugges- 
tions, is, to fatten the soil, so as to make the wheat grow 
so luxuriantly, that the little which the msects consume 
will not be missed in the growth of the wheat. 

The Chinch Bug. 

This pernicious insect is a very small bug, of a black 
color, with white wings. In some localities they are 



420 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



called " Mormon lice." See Dr. A. Titcli on Insects, 
and Klippart's Wheat Plant. 

Dr. Sherman, of Waukegan, Illinois, after a patient 
series of microscopical observations, made a discovery 
which will snrely interest wheat-growers who have been 
troubled by the chinch-bng pest. His investigations 
have shown that the seed wheat or kernel was nsed as 
a sort of " foster-mother " by the bng ; and that in all 
wheat grown upon land where there are bugs, there is 
deposited, in the fuzzy end of the kernel, a large quan- 
tity of eggs, which produce the bugs next season. It 
follows that, if the kernel of seed wheat is the general 
depository of the eggs of the chinch bug, our farmers 
have been sowing the pest each year, as regularly as 
they have their wheat ; and if such is the case, the erad- 
ication of the bug will be easily accomplished — either 
by sowing no wheat that has been in contact with the 
bug, or by steeping the seed in some solution before 
sowing, which will destroy the larva. If this remedy 
fails, when the seed has been selected for a few years, 
according to directions in Chapter III., the wheat crop 
must fall a prey to these devouring insects. 

It will be an interesting exercise to read all that 
may be said about the numerous insects injurious to 
growing wheat, in the books alluded to above. But, 
after all that can be said, the practical consideration is. 
What can he done to prevent or escape their ravages f 
I answer, for tlie third and last time. Save your seed 
with care y select varieties that are insect-proofs if pos- 
sible / sow the seed at the most auspicious period / and 
fatten the soil with rich manure. Let wheat culture 
receive the same attention that breeders of choice ani- 
mals give to rearing improved stock. 



THE WHEAT CULTURIST. 



421 



Impkoyed THKASHiNa Machines. 
The illustration shown on this page represents a 




new style of thrashing machine, made by Wheeler, 
Melick & Co., Albany, I^ew York, for thrashing wheat 



422 



THE WHEAT CULTUEIST. 



and long rye without breaking, or tangling the straw. 
This thrasher is one of the most ingenious labor-saving 
machines that I know of. It is similar to a thrasher 
invented by Eev. 'N. Palmer, Hudson, ISTew York, which 
operated with two long cylinders about five and a half 
feet long and fourteen inches in diameter, made to re- 
volve toward each other. 

The unthrashed grain is fed sideways into the machine, 
instead of lengthways. If some of the straws enter in 
a diagonal direction, they will be brought out straight. 
The straw is carried by the carrier beyond the rear end, 
where it is deposited in gavels of any desired size. When 
the machine is in operation, two active laborers will 
bind the straw as fast as the machine thrashes it. 

Straw thrashed with such a machine is much more 
valuable in market than if it had been thrashed with a 
machine that breaks it into short pieces ; and more than 
this, the bundles can be stored in a smaller space, and 
it is more convenient for being fed into a straw-cutter 
after being thrashed. This machine will thrash all kinds 
of cereal grain as fast as spiked machines ; and when 
tlie straw is long and heavy, I think it will thrash faster, 
with the same power, than the other thrashers which 
shell out the grain by means of spikes. Two horses will 
drive such a machine, when attached to a railway power, 
and do a fair business ; but a three-horse railway power 
will give the cylinders a furious velocity ; and an active 
man will be obliged to work lively in order to feed the 
machine to the capacity of the thrasher. 

The reason why such a machine will thrash long 
heavy straw more rapidly than a spiked thrasher, is, 
that a large proportion of the effective force of the team 
is absorbed in breaking the straw to pieces by means of 



THE WHEAT CULTTJRIST. 



423 



the spikes, while the corrugated cylinder works the long 
straw through the machine with the expenditure of 
little power. 



The ITational Fodder-cutter. 

The accompanying illustration of a fodder-cutter re- 
presents a machine of great superiority, made by J. 




Fig. 79.— Fodder-cutter. 



D. Burdick & Co., Kew Haven, Connecticut. These 
machines are made of several different sizes, to suit the 
requirements of small as well as large farmers. The 
small ones are worked by hand, and the large sizes can 
be driven by horse, or steam power. 

I consider a good fodder-cutter to be an implement 
that every successful wheat-grower needs. In order to 
raise wheat successfully from year to year, a farmer 
must keep neat cattle or sheep ; and if he makes such 



424 



THE WHEAT CULTUKIST. 



use of his wheat straw as will be necessary, in order to 
maintain the fertility of the land, he must cut his fod- 
der and make rich manure by feeding cattle, or sheep. 
In order, therefore, to be able to cut straw or any kind 
of fodder economically, one must have a first-rate 
machine. I know of no kind better adapted to the 
wants of common farmers than the ^N^ational Cutter. 



Management of Wheat Ctleanings. 

The grain that is gleaned with horse rakes in wheat 
stubbles, after the crop has been harvested, should never 
be mingled with the other grain, as the gleaned grain is 
seldom fit for seed, and never suitable to be ground into 
flour for human food. When the scattered heads of 
grain are gathered with tlie horse rakes, the teeth of the 
rakes will always tear up sods, grit, and small stones, 
much of which will be collected with the gleanings. 
Then, when this unthrashed grain is put through the 
thrashing-machine, small hard stones are liable, in many 
instances, to injure the machine more than the value of 
several bushels of gleaned grain. Gleaned wheat is 
only fit for cattle feed, because the heads have usually 
lain in the rain, dews, and sunshine, nntil the kernels 
have been swelled and shrunken and dusted over with 
grit whicli is dashed over the straw during showers of 
rain. This alternate wetting and drying of the grain 
injures the germ of every kernel. Therefore, if the 
grain be mingled with clean grain for seed, a loss must 
be sustained equal to the value of such grain. Such 
kernels will make meal for domestic animals ; but if 
employed for seed, they will not vegetate. When such 
grain is gronnd into flour, after having been mingled 



THE WHEAT CULTHRIST. 



425 



with clean wheat of a bright color, a small quantity 
will injure the excellence of the bread, by rendering 
the white flour dark-colored and the bread gritty. The 
truth is, that no one can make light white bread, such 
as an ambitious farmer would place on a table before 
his guests, when a portion of the flour is made of grain 
that has been gleaned. If such grain be ground into 
Graham flour, the bread made of the unbolted flour 
will be dark-colored, heavy, and gritty. The most skil- 
ful baker in the land cannot make excellent bread of 
any kind, nor pie-crust, nor cake, out of the flour of 
gleaned wheat that has been wet and dried. 

Most farmers contend that such grain will sell for just 
as much per bushel, if mingled with the crop — which is 
all true. But dealers ought to make a deduction in the 
price of every bushel of wheat, which has gleaned grain 
mingled with it. The large quantities of gleaned wheat 
that are gathered with horse rakes, in the wheat-growing 
districts of the country, is one prime cause of so much 
dark-colored flour and heavy, soggy, and clammy bread, 
of which the great mass of people have just cause to 
murmur. Farmers alone are the parties on whom the 
blame ought to rest. And farmers are the persons who 
should correct this world-wide evil, of which so much 
complaint is constantly made in relation to dark flour, 
heavy and gritty bread. 

Wheat gleanings should be kept entirely separate 
from the clean wheat, and thrashed separately, or be 
thrashed with other cereal grain that is to be employed 
for feeding domestic animals. Gleaned grain will make 
excellent chicken feed; and if the gleanings be thrashed 
with oats, barley, or rye, which is to be ground for feed- 
ing stock, its value will not be lost. And although a 



426 



THE WHEAT CnLTUEIST. 



person may not realize quite so much money per busliel 
for his gleanings, when nsed np in tliis manner, as when 
the gleaned grain is sold with the crop, still, he would 
have the satisfaction of knowing that his wheat went to 
market in a merchantable condition, and that the flom* 
produced from it, would not fail to make excellent 
bread, both for the rich and the poor, who depend on 
the farmers to deliver them a good article of food, which 
no one would hesitate to set before his guests. 

When grain has been gleaned with horse rakes, the 
wads or rakefuls should be shaken apart with much 
care, for the twofold purpose of removing all stones and 
sods that may have been gathered by the rake-teeth, 
and for exposing the damp straw to the influences of 
the sun and drying wind. In case of a storm of rain 
before gleanings can be secu.red in the barn or stack, 
let the windrows be forked into large cocks and covered 
with hay caps. Then as the gleanings are usually 
hauled to the barn after the sheaves have been gathered, 
they can be thi'ashed and kept separate from the clean 
grain with little or no difficulty. 

OurrmG Yegetaeles foe Stock. 

Every careful farmer who has been accustomed to 
feed fruit and vegetables to any kind of stock under- 
stands and appreciates the importance of reducing all 
kinds of vegetables to small pieces, before feeding them 
to any kind of domestic animals, except horses and 
mules, which have front teeth on both jaws, with 
which they can nip their food. When neat cattle and 
sheep are required to eat pumpkins, tm'nips, carrots, po- 
tatoes, or apples, when the pieces are so large that they 



THE WHEAT CULTTJEIST. 



427 



cannot be placed readily between tbe double teeth, the 
animals are exceedingly liable to get choked. Besides 
this, if an animal's teeth are poor, they are required 
to make a great exertion to eat vegetables nnless they 
are cut into small bits. 

The accompanying illustration represents a vegetable 
cutter, which has given excellent satisfaction, for cutting 
pumpkins, turnips, and all kinds of roots into small 




Fig. 80. — Excelsior Koot Cutter. 



pieces for sheep or cows. I think it is the best cutter 
in market, at the present writing, as J. S. Robertson, 
Syracuse, 1^. Y., the inventor, has received many pre- 
miums and medals from Agricultural Societies, on this 
cutter. At the State Fair, Buffalo, it cat a bushel of 
potatoes fine enough for sheep in twenty-six seconds. 



428 



THE WHEAT CIJLTIIRIST. 



The pumpkins or roots to be cut are put in the box so 
that they come in contact with the cylinder, the upper 
side of which is shown in the figure. The cylinder is 
hollow, being made of hard iron. Small gouge-shaped 
cutters are secured to the surface of the cylinder, which 
gouge out pieces of the vegetables about as large as a 
man's thumb. Such pieces are of convenient size for 
sheep or any other stock to eat with facility. A small 
lad or girl can cut a bushel of roots in about one min- 
ute, with comparative ease. 

The cutters can be adjusted to cut very fine, or 
coarse. If the knives become dull, the edge can be put 
in order in a few minutes with a round file. If vege- 
tables and apples could be reduced to a fine pulp before 
they are fed to stock, the animals would extract more 
nourishment from the feed, than if such coarse materials 
were simply run through a vegetable cutter. 

It is an excellent practice, when feeding stock of any 
kind with cut or pulped vegetables, to mingle meal of 
any kind of grain with the pulped feed, as there is al- 
ways more or less advantage in mingling several kinds 
of food together, before animals are supplied with their 
usual allowance. Every wheat grower should have 
such a root cutter. When raising roots, feeding stocky 
and growing wheat are properly combined, our country 
will be noted for beautiful crops of excellent wheat. 



THE END. 



IND 



EX. 



A 

PAGE 

Absurdities Exposed, ... 78 
Alabama Wheat, .... 100 
Alden's Quack Rake, . . . 145 
Andriolo Wheat, four -rowed. 104 
" Red and Hairy, .' 102 
" Black, 101 

B 

Bands. How to Make, . . . 857 

Band Maker 363 

Binder, Skilful, 359 

Binding- Disadvantag-eously, . 361 
Blossoms of Wheat, ... 39 
Black Sea Spring Wheat, . . 116 
Blue Stem Wheat, .... 96 
Botanical Description of 

Wheat, 24 

Bull Wheat, 97 



Cahoon's Seed Sower, . . 297 
Caps. How to Make, . . . 375 

Cavuga Chief, 386 

Carbonaceous Material, . . 168 

Cattle and Wheat 196 

Charcoal Dust for Wheat, . 228 
Chemical Structure of Wheat, 10 
Climatic Influences, . . . 12 
Climatology of Wheat, . . 57 
Clover Sod for. Wheat, . . .213 
Ploughing in, . . , 215 
Conclusion of Wheat-growing, 294 
Coulter, Spink's, .... 295 
Crevecoeur's Speech, ... 23 
Cradles, Suggestions about, 346 
" Form of Scythes, . 347 
" How to Handle, . . 350 
Cultivator. The Star, . . .296 



PAGE 

Cultivator, Alden's, . . .209 

" Ide's 142 

" Fink's, .... 199 
Cultivating on Sod G-round, . 203 
" after Potatoes, . 186 
" after Turnips, . 188 
after Peas, . . 190 
" growing Wheat, 200 
" Shallow Plowing 

for Wheat, . 184 
Culture of Wheat Chemically 

Considered 138 

Cutter. Xational Fodder, . . 428 
Cutting Vegetables for Stock, 426 



D 



365 
284 
258 



289 

63 
400 
309 
306 



Day's Work, .... 

Depth to Cover "^Tieat, 

Degeneracy of Wheat, 

Dibbling meat, . . 

Difference Explained. . 

' ' between Winter and 
Spring Wheat, . 

Dodge's Reaper, .... 

Drilling-ia Wheat, .... 

Drill, Beckwith's, .... 

" The Star, 821 

Brown's Celebrated, . 314 
The Buckeye. . . .316 

Drilling-ia, Philosophy of, . 312 

Drilling Crosswise, .... 816 



Early Wheat. How to Raise, 280 
Emblem of Civilization, . . 18 
Ergoted Wheat, 413 



Fanning jMill, Xutting's, . . 301 



430 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Fanning MiU, Harder's, . . 303 
Fallows, about Summer, . . 143 
Fastidiousness of Growing- 
Wheat, 66 

Fattening the SoH for Wheat, 139 
Fields, Eough vs. Smooth, . 212 
Fingers for Cradles, How to 

Make, 351 

Fink's Cultivator, .... 199 
Flint, Old White, .... 97 
Force in Vegetation of Wheat, 67 
Fork, Montgomery's, . . . 405 

Fodder Cutter, 423 

Freezing and Thawing of Soil, 123 



Gavels, How to Rake, . . . 356 
" How to Bind, . . .358 

" Size of, 354 

Genesee Wheat, 99 

GHbert's Subsoil Plough, . . 162 
Gleanings, How to Manage, . 424 
Great Yield of one Kernel, . 85 
Grain, Remedy for Lodged, . 163 
" Sowing Broadcast, . . 299 
Growing Wheat Then and 

Now, 14 

Guano for Wheat, . . . .180 

H 

Habit of Wheat Plant, . . 49 
Harvest, When to Cut Wheat, 343 

" Cutting Wheat too 

Green, . . . .343 

" Time, 333 

Harrow, Monroe's, .... 290 

" Nishwitz's Disk, . . 324 
Harrowing Wheat, .... 201 

Hard Wheats, 74 

Heavy Kernels, 238 

Holbrook's Plough, . .232, 234 
Hybridizing of Wheat, . . 40 



Hlustration of Winter Wheat, 126 
" Wheat Head, . 25 
Improvement in Wheats, . . 81 
Introduction to Wheat Cul- 
ture, 9 



Influence of Climate on 
Wheat, 12 

Insects, Enemies of Wheat, . 416 

" Midge, 418 

" Wheat Worms, . . 419 
" The Chinch Bug, . 419 

K 

Kernels in a Bushel, . . . 278 
" Greatest yield of one, 85 
" Large or SmaU, . . 242 
" of Wheat, how 

formed, .... 137 
" How they Germinate, 26 
Kentucky Red or mig Wheat, 103 
Kernel Magnified, .... 27 
Knives, Keeping Sharp, . . 331 
" Reynolds', .... 332 



Laboring Disadvantageously, 361 
Lodging Grain, Remedy for, . 163 



M 



for 



Manures, Nitrogenous 

Wheat, . . .177 
" Burying Deep or 

ShaUow, . . .183 
" Surface Manuring, 216 
" Manuring Sandy 

SoHs, . . . .219 
Machine, Thrashing, . . . 421 
Manufactory of Poudrette, . 176 
Manure, Different Kinds on 

Wheat, 172 

Manuring the Surface for 

Wheat, 216 

Material, Carbonaceous, . . 168 
May Early Wheat, . . 
Mediterranean Wheat, 
Mildew in Wheat, . . 
Monroe's Harrow, . . 
Mulching Wheat, . . 
Mucky SoUs for Wheat, 

N 

Names of Varieties, 
Nomenclature of Wheat, 
Nutting's Fanning MiU, 



114 
406 
290 
225 
218 



90 
87 
301 



mDEX. 



431 



PAGE 

Organic Elements of Wheat, 153 



Pasturing "Wheat, .... 223 

Pedigree Wheat 91 

Ploughs, Gilbert's Subsoil, . 162 
Cast-Steel, . . .323 

Gang, 142 

Ploughing Deep for Wheat, . 157 

Plant of Wheat lUustrated, . 52 

Plumule Magnified, ... 30 

Potatoes before T\Tieat, . . 186 

Pohsh meats. Hard and Soft, 74 

Poudrette, Home-made, . . 174 

" Manufactory, . . 176 

Prolificacy of TMieat, ... 69 

Q 

Quack Eake, Alden's, . . . 144 
Quantity of Seed per Acre, . 276 

R 

Rake, Warner's, 401 

" Alden's, 402 

Raking and Binding, . . . 352 
Reynolds' Sections, or Knives, 332 
Reapers, The Kirby, . . .327 
^' Dodge's, .... 400 
" Buckeye, . . . .403 
" Cayuga CHef, . . 386 
Roots and Spongioles, ... 31 
Root Cutter, Excelsior, . . 427 
Rule about Seeds, .... 241 
Rust, and Remedy for, . . 414 



I Seed Wheat, Fatal Experi- 
ments with, 318 
" " Brining, . . 320 
Seeding Thick and Thin, . . 274 
Shallow Culture for meat, . 184 
Sheep and meat, .... 193 
Sheaf of meat, . . . .363 
Sheaves, Setting up, . . . 367 
" How to Handle, . 367 
" How to Pitch and 

Load, . . 380, 381 



How to Mow, 



384 



Sheep in connection with 

meat, 193 

Shocking meat, . . . .366 

Smut in meat, 408 

" Experiments with, . . 411 
Snica, Deposits of , . . . . 415 
Soils, Sandy Loam for Wheat, 221 
" Best for meat, . . ! 128 
" How to Raise Wheat 

on a Poor, . . . 210 
" What it Requires for 

meat, 167 

Soil, mat Barren Lacks, . . 170 
Son, Best Quahty for meat, 128 
Whsit it Requires, . . 167 
" and Preparation for 

meat 120 



Sowing "^Mieat Broadcast, 



Sandy Soils for meat, . . 219 

Salt for meat, 227 

Scythes, How to Grind, . . 35 
' ' for Cradles , best form 

of, 347 

Seeding without Ploughing, . 222 
Seed Wheat, How to Save, . 235 
Seed meat' at the North, . 249 
Seedtime, The Best, . . . 259 
Seed Wheat, Suggestions, . 281 
" " Proper Depth to 

Cover, . . 284 



313 
266 
205 
206 



i Sowing Wheat in Winter, . , 
! Sowing among Indian Com 
Sowing on Com Stubble, . 
Spring meat, men to Sow, 270 
" " Sowing Broad- 
cast, . . 213 
" Culture of, . . 287 
Spring and Winter, Difference 

between, 63 

; Spring Black Sea, . . . .116 

j Spongioles Magnified, ... 29 

' Speech of Old Crevecoeur, . 23 
I Spring Wheat, Tnticum CEsti- 

Tum, 17 

I Straw, Color of 341 

I Stories about Large Crops, . 71 

i Stems, How Fonned, ... 55 

I Stocks, How to Make, . . 370 

Stool of Stubble, .... 54 

1 ' meat, 53 



432 



mDEX. 



PAGE 

Stem of Wheat Magnified, . 30 
Stories, Large "Wlieat, ... 71 
SubsoH Plough, GUbert's, . 162 
Subsoiling for Wheat, . . .160 
Summer Fallows, .... 143 
" " Object of, . 150 

" Fallowing an Ex- 
hausting System, . 153 
Stacks, How Made, . . .390 
" Topping Out, . . .398 



Tappahannock "Wheat. 
Turnips and "Wheat, 



. 114 
. 188 



Varieties, How to Produce 

New, . . .244 
" Names of, . . . 90 
" Undescribed, . . 119 
" Should be kept 

Pure, . . .247 
VitaHty of Seed "WTieat, . . 239 

W 

Wheat, Degeneracy of, . . 253 
" When to Sow, . . .259 
" Sowing in Winter, . 266 
" Sowing Early and 

Late 270 

' ' Thick and Thin Seed- 
ing 274 

" .Amount of Seed per 

Acre, .... 276 
" What becomes of 

Seed, . . . .278 
" Raking and Binding, 352 
' ' Chemical Structure 

of, 10 

" Emblem of Civiliza 

tion, .... 18 
Botanical Description 

of, 24 

" Hybridizing of, . , 40 



Hard, Soft, and 

Polish, . . 
ProMcacy of, . . 



74 



Wheat, After Spring Crops, . 145 
" Stems of, How 

Formed, ... 55 
" Fastidiousness of 

Growing, ... 66 
" Force in Vegetation 

of, 67 

" Organic Elements of, 135 
' ' Limit of Region, . . 75 
' ' Improvement of, . . 81 
" On Clay Loam, . . 131 
" Fattening the Soil for, 139 
" Culture of, on Prairies, 140 
" On Sod Ground, . . 203 
" Among Ladian Com, . 205 
" On Com Stubble, . . 206 
" On Miicky SoHs,' . . 218 
" Pasturing, .... 223 
" Mulching, .... 225 
" Salt for, .... 227 
" Alabama, .... 100 
" Andriolo, .... 101 

" Diehl 105 

" Egyptian, .... 107 

" Bald, 94 

" Black Sea, .... 116 
" Blue Stem, .... 96 

" Bull 97 

" Early May, .... 98 

" Genesee 95 

" Indiana.' 98 

" Kentucky Red, . . 103 
Golden Straw, . . 112 
" Fife, Spi-iag, . . .118 
" Mediterranean, . .114 
" Rio Grande, . . .117 
" Tea, Chiaa, . . .117 
" SUverstraw, . . .118 
" PedigTee, .... 91 
" Tappahannock, . . 114 

" "Whig, 103 

" White Flint, ... 99 

" Week's, 109 

TiUei-ing of, . . . 53 
' ' Winter, Triticum Hy- 

bernum, ... 17 
" Spring, 17 

Winter Fallowing, .... 154 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: September 201 2 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson ParV Dnve 
Cranberry Township. PA 1 S066 
(724) 779-2111 



